The effect of background noise on free recall

The effect of background noise on free recall The effect of background noise upon free recall of visually presented words was investigated. A total of 60 participants were recruited for this psychological study. The experimental groups were the speech condition (N=20) and the whale sound condition (N=20) whereas the silent condition (N=20) accounted for the control condition. Participants were randomly assigned to each group. The speech, whale sound and silence accounted for the three levels of independent variable whereas the subjective free recall accounted for the dependent variable. This study formed two hypotheses. Hypothesis one proposed that more words will be recalled in the control condition than in the experimental conditions and hypothesis 2 proposed that fewer words will be recalled in the speech condition than both the whale sound and silent condition. The present investigation employed a between groups design. One way ANOVA showed that participants in the control condition (M = 12.85 SD = 2.97) significantly recall ed more words than the whale sound experimental (M= 9.05 SD =2.13) and the speech conditions (M= 9.65 SD= 3.49) (p= Key words: working memory, free recall, silence, whale sound, speech Investigation into background noise and participants free recall performance Background noise has been established to be among the most notable forms of interference in the in offices and educational settings causing stress and discomfort for workers and learners and affecting performance (Hugh Jones 2001). Background noise from aircraft, road traffic, and trains have all been shown to impair learning (Enmarker, Boman, Hygge 2006; Hygge, 2003; Wible, Nicol, Kraus, 2004 in McNeil). The working memory model proposed by Salame and Baddeley (1990) constitutes of the visuo-spatial system and phonological system, however, the memory system that is concerned with verbal visual and auditory presentation is the phonological store. The phonological store, together with the process of articulatory rehearsal constitutes what is unknown as the phonological loop (Gisselgard, Petersson, Baddeley Ingvar, 2003). Prominent psychologists have investigated the phenomenon of background noise and its interference with the working memory processes and recall impairment. For example, Salame Baddeley (1982 in Gisselgard, Petersson, Baddeley Ingvar, 2003) argued of the irrelevant speech effect which refers to a reduction in the immediate recall of lists of presented items when irrelevant auditory material is presented together with the items to be memorized (Gisselgard et al, 2003). Salame and Baddeley argued that irrelevant sound effect interferes with the temporary storage of verbal material within a phonological input store of limited capacity (Gisselgard, 2003). Jones (2004) also argues that auditory verbal stimuli have direct access to phonological system whereas visual verbal has indirect access whereas the visual verbal stimuli endeavour a process of sub vocalization before passing through the articulatory suppression system. (Jones, Macken Nicholls (2004: the phonological store of working memory). Other psychologists argue that the irrelevant speech will interfere with the representations of list items if and only they are being held within the phonological store. However, during the rehearsal process (articulatory suppression), the irrelevant sound effect may be abolished (Gisselgard, Petersson, Baddeley Ingvar, 2003), therefore not impairing word recall. Beaman Jones (1998) acknowledge that one of the earliest explanations produced for the irrelevant sound effect was the acoustic primary memory masking hypothesis (Colle Welsh, 1976) which postulates that irrelevant auditory stimuli have the action of masking phonologically recoded visual stimuli in an acoustic primary memory store. According to this approach, the items lose their distinctiveness by being masked, making their retrieval difficult (Beaman Jones, 1998). Banbury, Macken, Trenblay Jones (2001), on the contrary, argue that as the memory task and irrelevant speech are presented in different sensory modalities, the effect cannot be attributed to some kind of interference (or masking) at sensory level as suggested by Colle and Welsh( 1976). Instead they argue that this disruption must be attributable to: A confluence of processing from the ear and the eye at some level beyond the sensory organs; this can be explained as a breakdown in attentional selectivity. Despite the intent of the person to concentrate on the memory task, the irrelevant sound intrudes therefore impairing recall. (Banbury, Macken, Trenblay Jones, 2001) Banbury, Macken, Trenblay Jones (2001) suggest that interference results from the similarity of events represented in memory, a phenomenon known as phonological similarity. One subtype proposes that the disruption is based on a conflict of content between what is seen and what is heard. This may be through similarity (phonological similarity) in the identity of the irrelevant sound to the items being rehearsed (Salame Baddely 1982 in Banbury, Macken, Trenblay Jones 2001) through shared temporal cues or through degree of overlap of modality-independent features in the irrelevant speech with the items in the visually presented to-be-recalled list (Neath, 2000 in Banbury, Macken, Trenblay Jones 2001). The phonological similarity is particularly relevant in this study as a back ground speech by Martin Luther King, in English will be employed and administered in the background. It is worthy of acknowledgement that irrelevant sound hypothesis has been predominately investigated for serial recall (Lecompte, 1994 Beaman Jones, 1998). The irrelevant speech effect has been found to effect and disrupt the learning of list of words in a sequential order and Salame and Baddeley (1990) did establish that background noise was disruptive. However, free recall has also found to be affected by the irrelevant sound (Beaman Jones 1998). In light of this, the present study will investigate the irrelevant sound hypothesis through assessing free recall of subjects. Moreover, Studies (Beaman Jones, 1998 have shown that the irrelevant sound effect does equally effect serial or free recall, without distinction. For example, in testing the free recall and the irrelevant speech effect, Lecompte (1994) study found that a) irrelevant speech inhibited free recall more than white noise. In addition Lecompte (1994) had found an effect on irrelevant sound on free recall in four cond itions (Lecompte, 1994). This is also supported and acknowledged by Beaman Jones (1998). The present study will be employing whale sound as one of the independent variables although animal sound with relation to memory recall impairment have been investigated by Neath Surprenant (2000) (the nature of remembering) In other studies, the irrelevant speech effect was not found in free recall (Salame Baddeley, 1990 in Lecompte, 1994). Although there is substantial research which has found that noise disrupts learning, there is however some other investigations which established that background noise had a facilitative effect on learning as oppose to a detrimental effect dependent upon the level and frequency of the noise and subjective ratings of levels for interference (Hughes Jones, 2001). It is noteworthy that although Salame and Baddeley (1989) used Japanese speech in the background which accounted for the irrelevant speech the present study will use English Martin Luther King speech. Use of English narrative as an independent variable has also been investigated. For example, Jones, Miles and Page (1990 in Jones, Madden Miles, 1992) performed an investigation in which forward, reversed (English narrative) and Welsh (narrative) irrelevant speech were contrasted. Each produced a large and almost identical effect on the recall of consonant strings. In another study (in Jones, Madden Miles, 1992) irrelevant Italian and English produced a similar degree of impairment (Morris, Jones Quayle., 1989 in ibid) the psychologists argue that the phonological similarity effect isnt the cause of poorer recall as Salame and Baddeley (1989 in Jones, Madden Miles, 1992) have argued. The aforementioned mentioned study by Jones et al (1990) demonstrates that background speech which is similar to the language of the listener will be equally disruptive when compared to other languages such as Welsh. Oswald et al (2000 in Hughes Jones, 2001: the intrusiveness of sound) tested participants comprehension of sentences of meaningful speech, meaningless speech and in quiet. They found that performance was worse in both speech conditions relative to quiet, but most noticeably, meaningful speech was more disruptive than meaningless speech. This study therefore supports Salame and Baddeley (1990) similar phonological effect hypothesis with relation to interference and disruption, which will also form one of the hypothesis for the present study. Amidst the scope of studies already performed in the domains of irrelevant sound effect and its effect upon the phonological working memory, this present study too, aims to investigate whether or not the background speech and whale sound will impair recall for words presented visually. Method Participants A total of 60 participants were recruited for this psychological research. Each of the eight investigators for this study recruited eight participants. The control or silent condition comprised of 20 participants, the whale sound condition comprised on 20 participants and the Martin Luther King speech condition comprised of 20 participants. All these participants were randomly assigned to each of the eight investigators. All of the participants were over 18 and no other demographic variable such as specific age group or gender was considered in this present study. The participants were either related or associated with the investigators. Design variables A between subjects experiment design was employed. Participants were randomly allocated to each group. This study used one independent variable with three levels of background noise which were silent, speech, and whale sound. The silent condition was the control condition whereas the speech and whale sound were the experimental conditions. The dependent variable is the number of words correctly recalled by the groups. The noise level of the speech and whale sound was 66 -70 decibels. The present study employed the free recall methodology. Hypotheses Recall of words will be higher for the silent (control) condition than the whale sound and speech sound (experimental) conditions. This accounts for hypothesis 1. The recall of words will be lower in the speech sound condition compared to both the whale and silent conditions to investigate the phonological similarity effect and its effect of interference with information processing and recall. This therefore accounts for hypothesis 2. Stimuli and materials Martin Luther King speech (experimental condition 1); Whale sound (experimental condition2); Silence (Control condition); 20 words were selected from the Toronto Word Pool with neutral but similar levels of concreteness and imaginability. The lower level of imaginability and concreteness ranged from 1 to 3 and high ranged from 5 to 9 but the words selected were at level 4.font was Ariel size 12. The format of the words was a visual presentation of in a list form. Procedure Participants were briefed and informed consent was obtained prior to commencement of experimentation. In the silent (control) condition the participants were presented with the words. Participants learned the words for 3 minutes. Participants were then given a further 3 minutes to recall the words followed by debrief. In experimental (1) whale sound and experimental (2) speech conditions participants were presented with words and were allowed 3 minutes to learn the words accompanied with either background whale sound or speech. A further 3 minutes were given for the written free recall of words followed by debrief. In the brief the participants were informed of the whale and speech background noise, neither any approach to learn the words was mentioned. Other background interferences and auditory disruptions, other than the intended noise were kept to a minimum. Results The effect of background sound (silent, speech, whale sound) on recall of words was examined using one-way subjects ANOVA. It was expected that participants in the silent condition would recall more words than the participants in the speech and whale sound condition. The mean scores revealed that more words were recalled in the silent condition (12.85 SD = 2.97). There was almost equal number of words recalled in the whale sound (M= 9.05 SD=2.13) and the speech condition (M=9.65 SD=3.49). There was significant difference between the recall scores of the control and experimental conditions F (2, 57) = 9.748, p0.05). Participants in the speech condition recalled significantly less than the silent condition (Mean difference = -3.2 p=0.05). Therefore this experiment supports the hypothes1 and therefore the null hypothesis will be rejected. Lower recall in the speech condition compared to the silent but similar levels of recall compared to the whale sound condition partially supports hypo thesis 2. Condition Recall N Mean Standard Deviation Silent 20 12.85 2.97 Whale 20 9.05 2.13 Speech 20 9.65 3.49 Total 60 10.51 3.33 Table 1 shows the mean score for each group together with their standard deviations. The silent condition recalled the most number of words and the whale and speech conditions scoring the similar number of words. Sound Sound Mean Difference Sig. Alpha 0.05 Silent Whale 3.80 0.00 speech 3.20 0.00 whale Silent -3.8 0.00 Speech -.60 0.79 speech Silent -.32 0.03 whale .6 0.79 Table 2 Multiple comparisons showing the scores of each group, inclusive of mean difference and their significance. There is a significantly larger difference between Silent compared to whale and speech conditions. There is a significant difference between whale and silent condition but not with speech condition. There is a significant difference between speech and silent but not with the whale condition. This test supports hypothesis 1 expected the recall for words in the control condition to be higher than the experimental thus supporting the experimental hypothesis and rejecting the null hypothesis. However, there is not a significant difference between the speech and whale noise condition therefore as fewer words were recalled in the speech condition compared to the silent condition and assessing that there is not a significance recall difference when compared to the whale noise condition only partially supports hypothesis 2. Recall Sum of Squares Df Mean Square F Sig. ÃŽÂ ·p2 Between Groups 166.933 2 83.46 9.74 0.000 0.25 Within Groups 488.050 57 8.56 Total 654.983 59 Table 3 is showing the between and within groups mean scores and shows that the differences between the groups is significant (p= Discussion This present study attempted to investigate the effect of background sound on recall for words. The investigation manifested that overall the recall for the control (silent) condition was higher than the experimental (whale sound and speech) conditions. Therefore is supportive of the hypothesis 1 of this study and of the irrelevant sound hypothesis, and therefore rejecting the null hypothesis. The minor partial eta square effect is also noteworthy showing that the independent variables did not greatly affect the participants recall of words. In relation to the phonological similarity effect due to the administration of English words and English speech, it was found that articulatory suppression in the speech condition did not abolish the phonological similarity effect as well as the irrelevant speech effect which are known to impair the processing and retrieval of visually presented words. This is evident through lower production of words in the Speech condition. Therefore this study has supported the phonological similarity effect and its impairing effects upon processing visually similar verbal information. This investigation has shown that the practice of rehearsal or articulatory suppression did not abolish the both the phonological similarity effect and the irrelevant sound effect. The abolishment the phonological similarity hypothesis through articulatory suppression is well documented by Gisselgard, Petersson, Baddeley Ingvar (2003). The findings of these results can therefore be extended to the wider world where people are reading verbal information and listening to verbal auditory concurrently, albeit individual differences can also be taken into consideration. It was acknowledged that hypothesis 2 was partially supported because even though significantly fewer words were recalled in the speech condition than the silent condition but the difference is not statistically significant when compared to the whale sound condition. This finding is therefore also interesting as animal whale noise had equal level of disruption than human verbal speech. Despite the interesting findings, this study however, does have some limitations. This present study didnt take into consideration other individual variables such as age, gender. Considering these variables could yield further complimentary or contradictory results which could be subjected to empirical analysis. In a study performed by Ellermeier Zimmer (1997) individual difference was found with relation to susceptibility to the irrelevant speech effect. One study demonstrated that males and females perform differently in the presence of music when undertaking different tasks and exercises (Miller Schyb, 1989). In future studies, demographic variables and specific sample can be considered to ensure more reliable and valid results. Moreover, this present study did not take vocal or instrumental music as an independent measure and variable, although these variables may also be critical. Therefore, in future studies the inclusion of music condition and how background music facilitate s and impairs learning can also be considered. Hillard and Tolin (1975), for example, showed that if the background music was well-known to the subject, they performed better on the given task than when unknown music was present. The domains of familiarity and unfamiliarity of music can therefore, also be explored. Moreover, in another study, the psychoacoustics found that music that contained speech had significant detrimental effects on the participants ability to perform tasks (Martin, Wogalter Forlano, 1988). Extensive studies can be performed in light of all of the aforementioned variables.

Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare Essay -- classic story, literar

Based on the classic Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare, Roman, Julie, and Friends displays a new theme on becoming friends with children of all genders, even if it is not expected or allowed by their friends. There were many changes made to create a story that resembled Romeo and Juliet but also changed the meaning to a more positive and age appropriate moral. For example some of the original characters are resembled in the remediation, while others were completely new for the purpose of the new plot. The classic play was changed to a children’s book to provide a positive message to children by using pictures and designs that would suit a child’s liking. The design of the book was happy and cheerful, with basic pictures that resemble the words but are similar to the other pictures in the book. The book also uses ethos, logos, and pathos to sell the moral of the story. Ethos is mainly used by the creditability of Shakespeare. While pathos is the ability for the rea der to connect with the characters personalities and stories. Logos is used by providing the child realize that friends can be any gender or personalities, but if given the chance a friend can be found in anyone. The target audience is for children around the reading level of 3, with the purpose being the idea that children can become friends with children of any gender. The target audience for this remediation is children around the ages of 5-8 at a reading level of 3. The purpose of this remediation is the idea that a classic story can be changed to suit the views of a child. This story tells about how children should not judge other children based on their gender, but on their personalities and similarities. The book mainly uses stereotypical versions of boys and... ... ethos from taking a classic, well-known play and changing some details while still keeping the overall credit of the play. While using also using pathos as the main element to convince the child reading the book that any relationship can be formed if given the chance, while also using logos by providing the child with the facts that each of the child found a similarity between them and became friends. The design showed accurate visual images of the words while the cover displayed a happy ending. All the changes were used to display the differences in others and how friendships can be made if there is no judgment but acceptance of differences and looked at the personality. Overall the changes were made to appeal to a child instead of an older audience like Romeo and Juliet. Works Cited Shakespeare, William. Romeo and Juliet. New York: Penguin Books, 1998. Print.

Apple Inc. Historical Analysis

Part A- Historical Analysis: A. Business In: Apple Inc. is engaged in designing, manufacturing and marketing mobile communication and media devices, personal computers and portable digital music players. It also sells a range of related software, services, peripherals, networking solutions, and third-party digital content and applications as well as services and support offerings. Specifically, the company operates in the Technology sector and serves computer hardware, computer software, consumer electronics and digital distribution through the Personal Computers industry.Technology: Apple sells its products worldwide through its retail stores, online stores, and direct sales force, as well as through third-party cellular network carriers, wholesalers, retailers and resellers. The Company sells to consumers both mid and small- sized businesses, education, enterprise and government customers. Apple Inc. manages its business primarily on geographic basis. †¢ Reportable operational business segments include: Americas, Europe, Japan, Asia-Pacific and Retail. o Americas Segment: include both North and South America. Europe Segment: includes European countries as well as Middle East and Africa. o Asia-Pacific Segment: includes Australia and Asian countries; other than Japan. o Retail Segment: operates Apple’s retail stores worldwide. †¢ As of September 24, 1011, Apple Inc. had 357 retail stores, including 245 stores in the United States and 112 stores Internationally. Apple Incorporated NAICS Codes:2 334111- Electronic Computer Manufacturing 334119- Computer Peripheral Equipment Manufacturing 511210- Software Publishers Financials: See Appendix A: Historical Financial DataB. Goal Clarification & Strategies and Tactics Used to Fulfill Goals: Values and/ or Guiding Principles important to Apple’s innovation strategy: 1. Be Your Own Toughest Critic †¢ As the ‘Father of Management’, Peter Drucker once noted, â€Å"Your being the one who makes your products, process, or service obsolete is the only way to prevent your competitor from doing so. † With this strategy in mind, besides from just beating competitors, Apple Inc. ’s success comes mainly from its attempts to beat itself. 2. Lead Customers; Don’t Follow them Apple Inc. distinguishes itself, as a business that creates those alternatives implying that customers cant tell you what they want from a product. 3. Focus on the Few and Sell to the Many †¢ Apple Inc. is focused on selling a few products in each category rather than those companies who sell dozens of models at once. Instead of trying to satisfy every single consumers tastes, Apple Inc. narrows it down and appeals to a broader group of consumers. 4. Institutionalize your Creativities †¢ With the passing of Steve Jobs, Apple Inc. as seemed to hold and treat his values so that Apple Inc. could be far less dependent on him. †¢ Environmental Guiding Principles 1) à ¢â‚¬Å"Meet or exceed all applicable environmental, health, and safety requirements. We will evaluate our EHS performance by monitoring ongoing performance results and conducting periodic management reviews. † 2) â€Å"Communicate environmental, health, and safety policy and programs to Apple employees and stakeholders† 3) â€Å"Design, manage, and operate our facilities to maximize safety, promote energy efficiency and protect the environment† ) â€Å"Strive to create products that are safe in their intended use, conserve energy and materials, and prevent pollution throughout the product life cycle, including design manufacture, use, and end of life management. C. Environmental Analysis †¢ Integrated Brand Promotion is a way of life now. Social acceptance lays in people’s materialistic possessions. o Being the leader in trends, advertising and promoting correctly, and staying ahead of customer wants is key to successful businesses in the technology i ndustry. Patent Laws o Patent laws are good for technology companies because they protect intellectual property. Companies with sufficient funds to patent anything and everything come out ahead of the game. But recent concerns over the licensing on patents for technology has led to a review of the patent process. If patent laws change, Technology companies may only be able to protect their intellectual property for a shorter amount of time that leads to a change in the technology industry’s business processes. Global markets for the products and services are highly competitive and subject to rapid technological change. If companies are unable to compete effectively in these markets, their financial condition and operating results could be materially adversely affected. o To remain competitive and stimulate customer demand, companies must successfully manage frequent product introductions and transitions. †¢ Global Economic Conditions Could Materially Adversely Affect the Industry o The Personal Computer Industry’s operating and performance epends significantly on the economic conditions worldwide. Uncertainty in global economic conditions pose risks as consumers and businesses alike cut/postpone spending in response to tighter credit, unemployment, negative financial news, and/ or decline in asset values or real wealth. †¢ Wars, Trade-laws, Outsourcing and International Business o With many companies outsourcing both product manufacturing and logistical service jobs, wars, trade-laws and international business can adversely be affected if negative factors arise. Transportation costs could significantly increase as well as taxes on the outsourcing of jobs. o Outsourcing of jobs eliminates direct control over production and distribution. D. Competitive Analysis: The markets for the Apple Inc. ’s products and services are highly competitive and are confronted by aggressive competition in all areas of its business. Its markets are ch aracterized by frequent product introductions and rapid technological advancements. Apple Inc. s main competitive factors include price, product features, relative price/performance, product quality and reliability, design innovation, a strong third=[arty software and peripherals ecosystem, marketing and distribution capability, service and support, and corporate reputation. These markets are characterized by frequent product introductions and rapid technological advances that have substantially increased the capabilities and use of mobile communication and media devices, personal computers, and other digital electronic devices.The Company’s future financial condition and operating results depend on the Company’s ability to continue to develop and offer new innovative products and services in each of the markets it competes in. Industry Competitors: Direct Competitors: †¢ Hewlett-Packard Company (HPQ) HP is a leading global provider of products, technologies, soft ware, solutions and services to individual consumers, small- and medium-sized businesses and large enterprises, including customers in the government, health and education sectors.HP offers personal computing and other access devices, multi-vendor customer services, infrastructure technology and business process outsourcing. They also provide technology support and maintenance, application development and support services as well as consulting and integration services. HP also offers imaging and printing-related products and services; and enterprise information technology infrastructure, including enterprise storage and server technology, networking products and solutions, IT management software, information management solutions and security intelligence/risk. Research in Motion Limited (RIMM) Research In Motion Limited designs, manufactures, and markets wireless solutions for the mobile communications market worldwide. It provides platforms and solutions for access to information, including email, voice, instant messaging, short message service, Internet and Intranet-based browsing, and multimedia content through developing integrated hardware, software, and services.It also offers development platform that allow third party commercial and enterprise software developers to build and deploy custom applications to run on BlackBerry smartphones, and various products and technologies to third party developers, wireless carriers, and enterprise customers to develop distribute and manage these applications, as well as a range of software development tools. In addition, the company provides the BlackBerry Messenger Social Apps Platform; and push, payments, advertising, location, analytics, and score loop services, as well as the BlackBerry App World to discover and download/purchase of applications.Further, it offers BlackBerry Enterprise Server tools and technologies that enable secure and managed provisioning of applications; BlackBerry Enterprise App World that a llows employees access to a catalogue of applications; and repair and maintenance services. The company sells its BlackBerry wireless solutions through global wireless communications carriers and third party distribution channels. Research In Motion Limited was founded in 1984 and is headquartered in Waterloo, Canada. Motion Limited †¢ Google Inc. (GOOG) Google Inc. a technology company, maintains an index of Web sites and other online content for users, advertisers, and Google network members and other content providers. It offers AdWords, an auction-based advertising program; AdSense program, which enables Web sites that are part of the Google Network to deliver ads from its AdWords advertisers; Google Display, a display advertising network that comprises the videos, text, images, and other interactive ads; DoubleClick Ad Exchange, a real-time auction marketplace for the trading of display ad space; and YouTube that provides video, interactive, and other ad formats for advert isers.The company also provides Google Mobile that optimizes Google’s applications for mobile devices in browser and downloadable form, as well as enables advertisers to run search ad campaigns on mobile devices; and Google Local that provides local information on the Web.In addition, it offers Android, an open source mobile software platform; Google Chrome OS, an open source operating system; Google Chrome, a Web browser; Google+ to share different things online with different people; Google TV, a platform for the consumers to use the television and the Internet on a single screen; and Google Books platform to discover, search, and consume content from printed books online. Further, the company provides Google Apps, a cloud computing suite of message and collaboration tools, which primarily includes Gmail, Google Docs, Google Calendar, Google translate, and Google Sites; Search Appliance, a search echnology for use within enterprises; Google Site Search, a custom search engi ne; Google Commerce Search for online retail enterprises; Google Maps Application Programming Interface for businesses; and Google Earth Enterprise, a firewall software solution for imagery and data visualization. Competitors: Computer Hardware: †¢ Dell Inc. (DELL) Dell is a global information technology company that offers its customers a broad range of solutions and services delivered directly by Dell and through other distribution channels.Dell Inc. is focused on providing technology solutions that are more efficient, more accessible, and easier to manage. Dell Inc. is a holding company that conducts its business worldwide through its subsidiaries. Dell built its reputation as a leading technology provider through listening to customers and developing solutions that meet customer needs. A few years ago, Dell Inc. initiated a broad transformation of the company to become an end-to-end technology solutions company.They are expanding their enterprise solutions, which include se rvers, networking, and storage offerings. †¢ International Business Machines Corporation (IBM) International Business Machines Corporation was incorporated on June 16, 1911, as the Computing-Tabulating-Recording Co. , a consolidation of the Computing Scale Co. of America, the Tabulating Machine Co. and The International Time Recording Co. of New York. IBM has focused on the intersection of business insight and technological innovation, and its operations and aims have been international in nature.The company creates business value for clients and solves business problems through integrated solutions that leverage information technology and deep knowledge of business processes. IBM solutions typically create value by reducing a client's operational costs or by enabling new capabilities that generate revenue. †¢ Cisco Systems Inc. (CSCO) Cisco Systems, Inc. designs, manufactures, and sells Internet protocol (IP) based networking and other products related to the communicatio ns and information technology industries worldwide.It offers switching products, including fixed-configuration and modular switches, and storage products that provide connectivity to end users, workstations, IP phones, access points, and servers, as well as function as aggregators on local-area networks and wide-area networks; and routers that interconnects public and private IP networks for mobile, data, voice, and video applications. The company also provides set-top boxes; cable modem CPE products, such as data, EMTA, and gateways; cable modem termination systems products; videoscape software products; and headend equipment, which include encoders, decoders, and transcoders.In addition, it offers collaboration products comprising IP phones, call center and messaging products, unified communications infrastructure products, and Web-based collaborative offerings, as well as telepresence systems that integrates voice, video, data, and mobile applications on fixed and mobile networks ; and security products consisting of firewall, intrusion prevention, remote access, virtual private networks, unified clients, network admission control, Web gateways, and email gateways, which deliver identity, network, and content security solutions for mobile, collaborative, and cloud-enabled businesses.Further, the company provides wireless products, such as wireless access points, controllers, antennas, and integrated management solutions; data center products, which include blade and rack servers, fabric interconnects, and server access virtualization; and home networking and other networking products. Additionally, it offers technical support services; and responsive, preventive, and consultative support services for its technologies. †¢ Xerox Corp. (XRX)Xerox Corporation provides business process and information technology (IT) outsourcing, and document management services worldwide. Its business process outsourcing services include human resources services; finance an d accounting services; healthcare payers and pharma; customer management solutions; healthcare provider solutions; technology-based transactional services for retail, travel, and non-healthcare insurance companies; programs for federal, state, county, and town governments; transportation solutions; and government healthcare solutions.The company is involved in designing, developing, and delivering IT solutions, such as comprehensive systems support, systems administration, database administration, systems monitoring, batch processing, data backup, and capacity planning services; telecommunications management services; and desktop services.Its document outsourcing services comprise managed print services that optimize, rationalize, and manage the operation of Xerox and non-Xerox print devices; and communication and marketing services that deliver design, communication, marketing, logistic, and distribution services through SMS, Web, email, and mobile, as well as print media. The comp any also manufactures and sells products, including desktop monochrome, color and compact printers, multifunction printers, copiers, digital printing presses, and light production devices for small/mid-size businesses and large enterprises.In addition, it sells paper, wide-format systems, network integration solutions, and electronic presentation systems. The company sells its products and solutions through its sales force, as well as through a network of independent agents, dealers, value-added resellers, systems integrators, and the Web. F. Strengths and Weaknesses of the Organization Strengths: 1) Pioneer of innovation and high-tech quality products. 2) Globally recognized Brand Name/ Brand Image. ) Large segmentation of loyal customers. 4) Amazingly strong Research and Development team. 5) Eye-catching products and experience of Apple’s software both in hands and in Retail stores. 6) Strong presences in education segments. 7) Corporate culture passed down by former CEO an d Founder, Steve Jobs. Weakness 1) Technological products of Apple’s have extremely short lifecycles, this implies that the development and production of new products and services has to be constant. ) Low presence in advertising. Opportunities 1) Great relationship through joint venture with other big companies. 2) Consistent growth in innovation and technology. 3) More international expansion. 4) Increase demand of online retail as well as applications and services. 5) Growing market of â€Å"Green† and energy efficient products. Threats 1) Competition 2) Expensive quality products compared to competitors products. 3) The death of Steve Jobs. ) High product substitution effect in innovative and competitive technology markets. Historical Financial Data: As of June , 2012, Apple Inc. had total sales of $108,249,000 and a net income of $25,922,000. Summary information by Geographic Region for three years ended September 24, 2011(in millions): Net Sales by Geographic Reg ion Segmentation1 2011 2010 2009 America | $38,315 |$24,498 |$18,981 | | Europe |27,778 |18,692 |11,810 | | Japan |5,437 |3,981 |2,279 | | Asia-Pacific |22,592 |8,256 |3,179 | | Retail |14,127 |9,798 |6,656 | | Total: |$108,249 |$65,225 |$42,905 |Summary information by Product division for three years ended September 24, 2012 (in millions): Segment Operating Income by Geographic Region Segmentation1 2011 2010 2009 | America | $13,538 |$7,590 |$6,658 | | Europe |11,528 |7,524 |4,296 | | Japan |2,481 |1,846 |961 | | Asia-Pacific |9,587 |3,647 1,100 | | Retail |3,344 |2,364 |1,677 | | Segment |$40,478 |$22,971 |$14,692 | |Operating- Income: | | | | a) Does not include segment assets nor depreciation, amortization and accretion. A reconciliation of the Company’s segment operating income and expenses for the three years ended September 24, 2011 (in millions): Total Operating Income 2011 2010 2009 Segment Operating Income | $40,478 |$22,971 |$14,692 | | Other corporate expenses (a) |(5,520) |(3,707) |(2,242) | |Share-based compensation expense |(1,168) |(879) |(710) | | Total |$33,790 |$18,385 |$47,501 | |Operating- Income: | | | | a) Other corporate expenses include research and development, corporate marketing expenses, manufacturing costs and variances not included in standard cost, and other separately managed general and administrative expenses. [pic] [pic] Not Sure if Needed: Apple Inc. also manages its business on product divisions. †¢ Reportable operational product divisions include: o Desktops ? Including iMac, Mac mini, Mac Pro and Xserve product lines. o Portables ? Includes MacBook, MacBook Air and MacBook pro product lines. o iPod o Other music related products and services ? Includes sales from the iTunes Store, App Store, and iBookstore in addition to sales of iPod services and Apple-branded and third-party iPod accessories. o iPhone and related products and services. Includes revenue recognized from iPhone sales, carrier agreements, servi ces, and Apple-branded and third-party iPhone accessories. o iPad and related products and services ? Includes revenue recognized from iPad sales, services and Apple-branded and third-party iPad accessories. o Peripherals and other hardware ? Includes sales of displays, wireless connectivity and networking solutions, and other hardware accessories. o Software, services and other sales. ? Includes sales from the Mac App Store in addition to sales of other Apple-branded and third-party Mac software and Mac and Internet service. Summary information by Product division for three years ended September 24, 2012 (in millions): 2011 2010 2009 Net Sales by Product1 Desktops |$6,439 |$6,201 |$4,324 | |Portables |15,344 |11,278 |9,535 | | Total Mac: |21,783 |17,479 |13,859 | |iPod |7,453 |8,274 |8,091 | |Other music related products and|6,314 |4,948 |4,036 | |services | | | | |iPhone and related products and |47,057 |25,179 |13,033 | |services | | | | |iPad and related products and |20,358 |4, 958 |0 | |services | | | | |Peripherals and other hardware |2,330 |1,814 |1,475 | |Software, Service and other |2,954 |2,573 |2,411 | |sales | | | | | Total:|$108,249 |$65,225 |$42,905 | | | | | | 2011 2010 2009 Net Income by Product1 |Desktops | | |$ | |Portables | | | | | Total Mac: | | | |iPod | | | | |Other music related products and| | | | |services | | | | |iPhone and related products and | | | | |services | | | | |iPad and related products and | | |- | |services | | | | |Peripherals and other hardware | | | | |Software, Service and other | | | | |sales | | | | | Total:| | |$ | [pic]

The Role of Peer Pressure in the Development of Eating Disorders - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 4 Words: 1283 Downloads: 8 Date added: 2019/05/31 Category Society Essay Level High school Tags: Peer Pressure Essay Did you like this example? Peer pressure increases the likelihood of young women developing eating disorders through social pressures to be thin, desire for approval from friends, and indirect competition within peer groups. Social Pressures to be Thin The pressure of society increases the likelihood of young women to develop eating disorders. In the words of Deanna Linville, an associate professor of counseling psychology and human services at the University of Oregon, eating disorders among young women aged 11-17 are associated with â€Å"criticisms of appearance and interpersonal pressure to be thin† (Linville et al. 746). More simply put, young women are persuaded to look a certain way by society and their peers. This is illustrated in a study performed by Lauren Shomaker, associate professor of human development and family studies at Colorado State University, and Wyndol Furman, of the University of Denver Department of Psychology, which found the pressure to be thin â€Å"increased during the transition from adolescence to young adulthood whereas body dissatisfaction decreased and then increased again over the study period† (Linville et al. 749). Individuals are most naive during their adolescent and young adult years, as they are most impressionable during this age, which is why they are increasingly more likely to develop disordered eating habits. Further, a research review organized by psychology professors Kristen Culbert at the University of Nevada, Sarah Racine at McGill University, and Kelly Klump at Michigan State University concluded that cases of eating disorders including anorexia and bulimia have increased along with the appreciation of thinness in Western cultures (Culbert et al. 1145). The United States is strongly influenced by European (or Western) cultures, which regard thinness as a trait of beauty. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "The Role of Peer Pressure in the Development of Eating Disorders" essay for you Create order Since American culture values appearance, society idolizes thin women and criticizes those who are not. According to the Healthy Teen Project, a center for eating disorder recovery located in Los Altos, California, being shamed for weight and physical appearance are compelling factors in the development of eating disorders. Prior to the start of their eating disorder, many teenagers reported being criticized for their appearance by their peers (â€Å"Adolescent Eating Disorders such as Anorexia, Bulimia and Binge Eating Disorders Are Treatable†). These criticisms concerning weight and physical appearance result in many feeling pressured to lose weight and get thin; eating disorders are one of these coping methods. Desire for Approval From Friends The feelings and actions of young women are greatly impacted by the desire for friends’ approval. As the psychologist and postdoctoral fellow at Children’s National Medical Center Eleanor Mackey puts it, weight control behaviors are highly influenced by the perceptions of their peers (Squires). As portrayed by this view, those who are surrounded by critical peers often take part in weight control behaviors, including eating disorders. In the words of Linda Buchan, a registered psychologist at Calgary Counseling Centre, â€Å"Some kids will go through a phase of starving themselves because their friends are doing it† (Holden). To fit in with their friends, some young women will develop eating disorders, whether it be because their friends or doing it, or simply as an attempt to appear more attractive. Many of Buchan’s clients who struggle with eating disorders began doing so in high school, where they learned it from their peers (Holden). Young women alread y have relatively low self-esteem during their teenage years. The desire to please their friends only makes matters worse. One of the reasons for these low levels of self-esteem is body dissatisfaction, which is the negative personal assessment of one’s body involving weight and shape (Joseph and Shiffrar). A study led by Dr. Pamela Keel of Florida State University’s Department of Psychology found that women who had lower body satisfaction often received remarks from friends regarding their weight and diet. The researchers also concluded that women who undergo eating disorders at a greater extent were more likely to â€Å"choose peers who make frequent comments† concerning their weight (â€Å"The Effect of Peers on Body Dissatisfaction and Eating Pathology†). Body dissatisfaction, which is affected by remarks from peers, prompts young women to develop eating disorders. Ultimately, young women whose friends tend to criticize their weight and appearance are endangered to develop low levels of body satisfaction, which leads to eating disorders. Competition Within Peer Groups Young women in America, teenagers especially, have a tendency to be extremely competitive toward one another. Results from a study designed and analyzed by Christopher J. Ferguson, an associate professor of psychology at Texas AM International University, suggest that competition between peers predicts negative outcomes (Ferguson et al.). In the class of these outcomes is low body satisfaction, which is associated with eating disorder development. In the Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, Texas AM International University contends when evaluating body image, young women attend to competition issues (Munoz et al. 480). Competing with other girls they feel to be â€Å"prettier† or â€Å"better looking† makes teenage girls feel inferior. When combined with the pressures of fitting in, these feelings of inferiority may prompt young women to refer to extreme, unhealthy measures such as eating disorders to rebuild themselves. Adding to the tension that already exists among young females are young men. Results of an experimental study led by Monica Munoz, associate professor and director of the Bachelor of Arts in Psychology at Texas AM International University, indicate women and girls are less satisfied with their bodies when competitive females and desirable males are present (Munoz et al. 480). When a â€Å"desirable male† is present, natural instincts force young women to compete with each other to an even greater extent. This high level of competition that occurs in the presence of young men causes young women to feel insecure, and dissatisfied with their body shape and weight. To manage these feelings, many will find themselves developing eating disorders. Because of the indivisible and increasing connection between peer pressure and eating disorders among young women, efforts must be made to improve body satisfaction to minimize the likelihood of eating disorder development in the United Sta tes. Works Cited â€Å"Adolescent Eating Disorders such as Anorexia, Bulimia and Binge Eating Disorders Are Treatable.† The Healthy Teen Project, www.healthyteenproject.com/adolescent-eating-disorders-ca. Culbert, Kristen M., et al. â€Å"Research Review: What We Have Learned about the Causes of Eating Disorders a Synthesis of Sociocultural, Psychological, and Biological Research.† Journal of Child Psychology Psychiatry, vol. 56, no. 11, Nov. 2015, pp. 1141–1164. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1111/jcpp.12441. Ferguson, Christopher J., et al. â€Å"Concurrent and Prospective Analyses of Peer, Television and Social Media Influences on Body Dissatisfaction, Eating Disorder Symptoms and Life Satisfaction in Adolescent Girls.† Journal of Youth and Adolescence, vol. 43, no. 1, 2013, pp. 1–14., doi:10.1007/s10964-012-9898-9. Holden, Lindsay. â€Å"Peer Pressure Can Hurt Healthy Eating Habits.† Calgary Herald, 14 Aug. 2012, www.calgaryherald.com/health/Peer+pressure+hurt+healthy+eating+ habits/7089849/story.html. Joseph, Christina, and Maggie Shiffrar . â€Å"Eating Disorders .† Maggie Shiffrar, Ph.D. Visual Cognition Lab, May 2011, nwkpsych.rutgers.edu/roar/EatingDisorders.html. Linville, Deanna et al. â€Å"Predictive Effects of Mother and Peer Influences on Increases in Adolescent Eating Disorder Risk Factors and Symptoms: A 3-year Longitudinal Study† International Journal of Eating Disorders vol. 44,8 (2011): 745-51. Munoz, Monica E., et al. â€Å"Mirror, Mirror on the Wall: Peer Competition, Television Influences and Body Image Dissatisfaction.† Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 5 Nov. 2011, pp. 458–483., doi:10.1037/e634112013-396. Squires, Sally. â€Å"Peer Pressure Can Carry Great Weight in Girls Eating and Exercise Habits.† The Washington Post, WP Company, 15 July 2008, www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/07/14/AR2008071401436_2.htm l?noredirect=onsid=ST2008071401608. â€Å"The Effect of Peers on Body Dissatisfaction and Eating Pathology.† Eating Disorders Review, vol. 24, no. 1, Jan. 2013, p. 12. EBSCOhost, search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=trueAuthType=ip,uid,cpid,urlcustid=s11761 92db=a9hAN=90544525.