Manage Risk final Essay

1 You must accurately complete the Student Assessment Pack. 2 Your Assessor may want to discuss written answers with you to get further evidence of your understanding and to check that it is your original work 3 You need to submit Assessment Cover Sheet for each assessment. 4 You are permitted to use dictionaries and to seek support, as required. 5 Where your work has been deemed as unsatisfactory, you will be permitted to resubmit the assessment. Refer to RGIT reassessment policy and procedure. 6 Unless the assessment task specifically allows pair work or group activities such as brainstorming, you must submit their own original work and are not permitted to copy the work of other students. Plagiarism is never acceptable. 7 Assessments must be submitted on their due dates. 8 Extensions are permitted in consultation with the trainer. Performance objective You must demonstrate knowledge of design requirements for workspaces that support innovation and work with a team to redesign a workspace. Assessor Instructions for Using This Assessment Workbook 1. Prepare for Assessment by reviewing support material for this unit/s. 2. Ensure that any pre-requisite units have been assessed as competent prior to the assessment of this unit/s 3. Trainees must complete all sections of the assessment. Be sure to reference the assessment context and proposed environment to ensure any mandatory assessment methods are used 4. Conduct the assessment using the documents provided, gaining participant agreement on each stage of the assessment process. Evidence must be gathered using the assessment tools provided 5. Each assessment tool must be fully completed. Where this is not possible, the appropriate response area should be marked NYC (Not Yet Competent) and notes made as to how competency will be  assessed. Final sign-off must not occur until the participant is assessed as competent in this item 6. Identify and gather any other relevant forms of evidence and attach to the participant Assessment Workbook, making note of the relevance of the evidence. Attach it to the participant Assessment Workbook prior to submission to administration. 7. Provide assessment outcome feedback to participant and complete all relevant details on the competency record sheet, ensuring the participants complete their verification sections. 8. Provide feedback on the competency record sheet section All questions must be answered. Projects must be completed including forms and documents required by the project(s). Completion of the Training Checklist must be included. Please attach any additional information that may be required to this document. Knowledge Based Questions 1. Define in detail, what is a risk? What 2 categories could you place risks in? Risk is a natural part of our physical, social, financial and competitive environments. It is defined as a chance of something happening that will have an impact on the achievement of objectives or goals in an organisation. Iti is measured in terms of likeliness and consequence. Extreme Risk – Forklift running over team member due to no high vis shirt being wear and spotters not doing their jobs properly. Forklift not staying in designated area. High Risk – Spillages, boxes in aisles, floods, Empty crates, Electrical cords across the floor. Medium Risk – Customer slipping on wet floor Low Risk – Liquid on Computers, falling down stairs, staple through finger. 2. When completing a Risk Assessment who might you need to talk to (e.g. Stakeholders)? Risk assessments are usually reported to Managers, duty managers, WHS Officers, Supervisors and stakeholders. 3. What legislative bodies could you communicate with to develop and implement a Risk Management Plan? The legislative bodies you report to are local Councils, Unions, ACCC, and your management Safety Team. 4. What is the purpose of the standard known as AS/NZS ISO 31000:2009 Risk Management? The purpose of this standard was to create guidelines and protocols for safe work environments and to give everyone in the work force a chance to know that they will be looked after and be able to go home safe no matter how dangerous their job is. This Standard was prepared by Joint Standards Australia/Standards New Zealand Committee OB-007, Risk Management to supersede AS/NZS 4360:2004, Risk management. When AS/NZS 4360:1999 was revised in 2004 (as part of a routine five yearly revision), it was decided by the Joint Australian/New Zealand Committee OB-007 that rather than undertake a similar revision in 2009, Standards Australia and Standards New Zealand would promote the development of an international standard on risk management which would then be adopted. 5. Detail what a SWOT analysis is, how you might use it in a business Risk Assessment? A SWOT analysis is a structured planning method used to evaluate the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats involved in a project or in a business venture. A SWOT analysis can be carried out for a product, place, industry or person. It involves specifying the nature of the business venture or project and indentifying the internal and external factors that are favourable and unfavourable to achieve that objective. 6. When completing a Risk Analysis what 4 items must you include in your analysis? The 4 items you should include are Checklists, Brainstorming, Fish-bone Diagrams and Flowcharts 7. What 5 levels of impact or consequence are there to assess Risk? The 5 levels of impact or consequence – Insignificant, Minor, Moderate, Major and Catastrophic 8. Read: WFD Pty Ltd has employed you as a consultant to assist in the Risk Assessment of the business in all areas of its operation. As you go through the process you find that the business is grossly lacking in many areas of business operations and WHS. Using a consultative process outline 2 processes you would have undertaken to arrive at the above conclusion? What relevant parties do you need to communicate your findings with? The 2 processes I would use, would be a workplace Audit and the Administration Records. The relevant parties I would Report to would be – Insurance Broker involved in the company, Manager the WHS Officer 9. Read: During your normal days activities you come across a document that says the business you work for, has no need or requirement for a Risk Assessment, as the owner of the business has assessed that his business does not have any risks. Explain what is wrong with this thinking? List some ways you may improve this policy. What would you conduct and who may you consult? Every business has a degree of risk about it. You just have to determine what they are. I would conduct a risk assessment myself and I would then give it to the Owner/Manager of the company. Fair Trade Office, WHS Officer, Government and the Local Council are also the governing bodies you should give the report to. It is to show were such things like fire extinguishers and first aid kits should go for example. 10. The business you work for has 15 staff. All of them have according to the paperwork been inducted into the business WHS policy and guidelines. However you have realized that a Risk Assessment has not been completed on the new business operations including new machinery that has been introduced. What items would you include in an action plan to correct this situation? You must include what legislation and/or legislative bodies should you consult with. The things to be added into the Action plan would be uniform guidelines, safe  work procedures, mobile phone usage on the floor and guidelines for wearing jewellery on the floor. Legislative bodies to be informed would be Unions, Councils, Managers, Suppliers, added to user manuals, WHS Officers and most importantly would be the workers themselves. 11. After completing a Risk Assessment, how would you communicate your findings to relevant parties in your business and what would your run (2 items)? Monthly safety meeting – information nights, questionaries 12. Using a business you are familiar with, identify 3 of their business’ greatest risks. Using the hierarchy of control for the managing of risk, outline how you would manage those risks. The three greatest risks were I work are Lifting items that are two heavy i.e one person lifting an item that is described as a two person lift item Tripping over empty pallets and getting hit by a forklift.  Need to work out the risk, check to see what is on the box and lift according to the instructions, making sure that the pallet has something on the corners to minimise the danger of tripping, make sure there are spotters giving direction to staff members and customers to minimisethe dangers associated with the forklifts. 13. How and where might you store the Risk Assessment tools including Implementation Plans? Why would the storing of these documents be important to a business? Risk Assessment plans and Implementation plans are kept in the WHS Officers Office as well as near the designated equipment in which the risk assessment covers. It covers the misuse of the equipment, 14. Discuss why it is important to monitor an action plan regarding Risk Treatment once it has moved into its implementation phase. The reason you monitor the action plan is to make sure everyone is trained and using the equipment in the correct manner to reduce any safety issues. When an employee starts to shortcut on doing things that is when things happen. 15. Using the review scope and frequency triangle, give at least 2 examples of activities that could be performed at each level when reviewing the Risk Management Process. Slicing Meat – check equipment, using PPE, operation equipment properly, then when finished turn off machine, then clean with appropriate cleaning procedure. Standard operating procedures – review training Are our work procedures in line with WHS procedures? 16. Employees with a disability have the same rights as other employees to a safe and healthy workplace and they also have the right to workplace modifications or adjustments that ensure their safety. What Acts affords these rights to disabled workers? What types of adjustments might be required? The Disability Discrimination Act 1992 has as its major objectives to eliminate discrimination against people with disabilities promote community acceptance of the principle that people with disabilities have the same fundamental rights as all members of the community, and ensure as far as practicable that people with disabilities have the same rights to equality before the law as other people in the community. Toilets with disability access, ramps for wheelchair, work stations adapted for people in wheelchairs or vision impaired, etc. 17. Businesses can take out a variety of insurances that will indemnify them and/ or their employees, customers, members of the public in the case of an accident or other adverse occurrence. Provide 3 types of insurance a business can take out? Provide 3 companies that offer insurance for  businesses. Asset and Revenue Insurance, Personal and Workers Insurance, Public Liability Insurance

The Renaissance as a Distinct Period of Time

The Renaissance as a Distinct Period of Time The Middle Ages was a time in history where everyone was faithful to religion as well as others. Also, in the Middle Ages, people were encouraged to always try their best; they were encouraged to fight for the highest achievement possible and to never give up. The Renaissance, however, was more focused on becoming matured and finding a way to be successful at everything one does. During this era, people fought to become all-sided men, also known as; renaissance men.This means they are not only successful in one type of art but in all types of art, as well as math, science, and literature. The Renaissance was a distinct period in time that was separated from the Middle Ages and began a new era. The writers and thinkers of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries believed that they took part in a completely different era than the Middle Ages. They believed that they were part of a more modern and current era known as the Renaissance. These peop le considered the Renaissance to be a new beginning of the Middle Ages (Ferguson Doc. 1).Renaissance means †rebirth† in french, which means is a whole new period of time. The art and literature of the Renaissance offered a â€Å"rebirth† of hope, and interest in life and how it was represented. During the Renaissance, religion was seen through a new perspective, the renaissance men found the scientific answers that were against the church heresies. Kepler, an astronomer, used observation and mathematics to prove his thesis. He did not accept what he was told by the church or the ancients. Instead, he proved his theories (Document 7). People were expanding their horizons, art and science was in full splendor.The philosophy of humanism also came about. The middle ages areknown for being limited in their artistic ideas because humans weren't supposed to practice many hobbies of the flesh. The renaissance men wanted to be unique, to stand out, to be different and make an impression on others. Da Vinci, a complex man of the renaissance was interested in anatomy and the realistic portrayal of the human body. He was the ideal man of the renaissance due to his many talents and interests (document 6). During the renaissance, protestantism came about and their churches were much more simplistic.Although catholic and orthodox churches were still stereotypically adorned heavily. The renaissance men were interested and concerned with things of this world, unlike believers, and leaders of the church, who were concerned about heaven. Burchhardt identified a difference between the medieval man, who was controlled by faith throughout his life, and the renaissance man, who fought for the highest individual development (Document 2). The beginning of the Renaissance in the mid-fourteenth century was marked by a turn from medieval life and values dominated by the Church toward the philosophical principles of humanism.The Renaissance was a distinct period in time that was separated from the Middle Ages and began a new era. It was during this time that literacy started to become more widespread and that art really started to take form. Paintings became more realistic, and elements created by the Greeks and the Romans were brought back into paintings; society began to organize itself in a similar way to how it works today. Knowledge and writings that were common to the Greeks and Romans that had lost their importance to the Europeans during the Middle Ages were restored in the Renaissance.

Career Research Paper

This Job Involves many skills. Since physical therapists are always working with people they must enjoy working with all different kinds of people. Touching others is also a large part of this job. They not only have to help a patient get better and help prevent injury. A therapist must have a good understanding of the human body and be able to show patients various exercises.There have been various types of therapy: heat and cold, hydrotherapy, electrotherapist, and massage and exercise according to Churchman. Heat and cold involves heating and cooling the Injury with various tools. Hydrotherapy Includes using hot water to help with various injuries. Electrotherapist Involves using electric shocks to relax the muscles. Massage and Exercise involves using acupressure and electrical stimulation. Today physical therapists make their own history through research. Rather than following everyone else they research to find what works best for them and their patients.The general duties of a physical therapist, according to Churchman, Include transporting patients, make-up of treatment tables, cleaning arioso machines, clerical work, talk with patients to become familiar with them and their injuries. They tend to work 40 hours a week and often-on Saturdays according to â€Å"Physical Therapists†. This article also states therapists tent to work one on one with patients and rarely work in groups since each injury is different they cannot be grouped together.The income off physical therapist ranges from $50,000 to $104,000 according to â€Å"Physical Therapists† and assistants tend to earn an average of $32,000 as stated in Churchman. The education needed for this Job once involved eating a physical education degree but has changed since them. However in 2001 all programs for physical therapy will be at the matters degree level and above. Students will need their undergraduate grades and volunteer experience in physical therapy. The undergraduate classes sh ould have a balanced combination of course that will teach you how to live and how to earn a living.Understand the development of humanity spiritual and social needs as well as physical needs. Therapists must think logically and be able to write and speak effectively. They must learn to have strong relationships with their patients. Tarring In high school they should start taking courses that will help them learn all of these skills. A few classes include biology, English, physics, first aid, and health. In college or university there are many programs to help physical therapists get the requirements they need.Physical Therapist Assistants require a two-year associate degree that gives students theoretical and practical knowledge. Physical therapists mostly work In the field with baccalaureate degrees but most students today earn a master's. Henderson also mentions that all students need some clinical experience while they are studying to et their various degrees. A few ways to get started it taking positions in large teaching hospitals in metropolitan areas to gain experience. The armed forces or the U. S. Public Health Service are also a good place to start.Hospitals or local practices are also available in most areas. Many new graduates tend to go to hospitals first. This Job really Interests me because I enjoy working with people and I always want to freshmen at San Marco's and was studying to become a Sports Medicine Trainer. I have always looked up to her and we have always had similar interests. I looked into Sports Medicine and found it quite interesting but I knew I would not be able to handle that much pressure. Later in my freshman year, my knees started to bother me while I was dancing so I went to an orthopedic surgeon to get a diagnosis.I noticed the physical therapist's office across the lobby but did not know anything about them. When I got home I began to research physical therapy and found it really interesting. I took anatomy and physiology in high school and fell in love with learning how the body moves. I am now in my third year at community college and I till have one more year before I plan on transferring to San Marco's Sinology program. From there I plan to get my master's, possibly Loam Linda, and my PhD from SST. Augustine in San Marco's or Loam Linda.San Marco's will help set up an internship at the new hospital in Tentacle and I am hoping to get a Job there while I finish up my education. Eventually I plan to open my own private practice, possibly specialize in a sport and work with athletes or work with the armed forces. Looking more into working for the armed forces, I could either enlist as an officer or work as a civilian. Enlisting as an officer would involve going through basic combat training, advanced individual training, and officer schooling.If I were to work as a civilian according to Henderson, many civilians hold two Jobs. Rather than only working for the military they tend to work at other pract ices or hospitals in the area. I feel I would also have to be very positive to help all the military men and women stay positive and keep working hard. Another issue with enlisting would be getting certified in each state. According to Henderson a therapist must be certified in the state before they are able to start practicing.

Planning theory Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Planning theory - Essay Example Thus spatial planning is regarded as a wider approach and this report would basically focus its attention on spatial planning in urban areas and also the regulations and policies which can directly impact on urban renewal. In fact urban planning is about determining the future plans for the design and organization of urban space and activities. Basically the urban spatial planning is provided by the local government and country planning system in order to use it in an optimum manner (Valler, Wood, & North, 2000). Urban spatial planning is regarded as integration of both the land use planning and transport planning in order to develop the area economically and socially. Thus spatial planning in urban areas is not a single tool, process and activity. In fact it consists of urban renewal which would already be lacking in investment with fewer developments (Jessop, 1990). In fact it identifies strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats throughout the particular area and proposes how it can be developed with some distinctive approaches in order to address the desired objective. This report would concentrate on spatial planning in urban areas and would delineate a series of suggestions for the improvement of physical arrangements in existing urban area, thus obviating the need for over-utilizing the strategic resources (Healy, 2003). The local government’s current plan is to efficiently use lands in urban areas so that planning policy goes beyond the traditional system of land use planning and integrates development strategies and regulations as required by sustainable development and sustainable communities. Thus urban planning assumes a very complex nature against the backdrop of rising uncertainties in the external environment (Jessop, 2002). This paper will have a strategic focus on the outcomes related to planning in urban areas and the focus of attention will be on planning perspectives that have been unfolding against

Young womens beleifs regarding human papillomavirus Research Paper

Young womens beleifs regarding human papillomavirus - Research Paper Example The descriptive research utilized a cross-sectional, survey design and included participants from four women’s health clinics and one university classroom. Three hundred and two women between ages 18–24 who could read and write English participated in two surveys. A health and demographic information questionnaire to collect the age, ethnicity, history of STD testing and/or HPV diagnosis, education level, race and relationship status details and a second questionnaire based on Representations of STDs (RoSTD) to survey the women’s beliefs of HPV were issued. The participants also completed a single item evaluating beliefs about the association between HPV and cancer. This research has four major limitations. First, the study employed a cross-sectional research design, limiting the ability to find out causation. Second, the study used self-report data where participants might have biased their responses to establish social desirableness. Third, one half of the participants pointed they were seriously involved in a romantic relationship, a factor that is highly subjective and lacks the ability to directly measure sexual risk behavior. Fourth, the participants were highly literate, largely White, and limited to certain geographic locations, minimizing the ability to generalize findings to other ethnic, racial, geographical, and educational groups. The findings of the study indicate that young women tend to misconceive the cause, symptoms, and chronic nature of HPV and also have negative impressions about the impact HPV diagnosis has on intimate relationships and mental health. Women who had never received STD testing or not diagnosed with HPV have more accurate and less severe representations about HPV when compared with young women with a record of STD testing or HPV diagnosis. Assessing women’s impressions about HPV enables the development of treatment methods centered on patient needs and also enhances HPV management in individuals diagnosed

Pharmaceutical Marketing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Pharmaceutical Marketing - Essay Example To this effect, the companies have come under great scrutiny and they have been viewed as negatively affecting the entire medical fraternity. However, many people do not see the connection between the pharmaceutical marketing and the negative effects it has on the professionals and the patients as well (Higgins, 39). Pharmaceutical marketing is the business activity of advertising and promoting the sales of drugs or pharmaceuticals. Although many people are opposed to the fact that marketing of pharmaceutical products affects the physicians and the patients, there is evidence that the practice is harmful to both the medical professionals and the patients and it is in this effect that many countries around the world have put up some legislation that seek to limit the activity. This is because the pharmaceutical marketing strategies that the industry has embarked on have put both the physicians and the patients at a dilemma with many drug companies competing to lure the physicians and the patients into using their products. ... This is because the physicians are the most important people to the industry and this can be attributed to the fact the physicians are the people who are involved in prescribing medicines to the patients. It is in this effect that the industries concentrated on the physicians as the targets of their advertising and this meant that the industry would send many of their representatives to the medical facilities and also use other avenues to reach the physicians. One of the avenues that the industry employed was the utilization of medical conferences whereby a company would be the host. This was a very effective form of advertising but with time, it became obsolete and the industry had to come with new methods of marketing (Higgins, 39). This precipitated the direct advertising to the consumer. This has been viewed as very destructive because even the physicians sometimes cannot convince a patient on the prescription drugs that are best for a particular condition. This means that the patients have some information about some drugs and this has put even the relationship between the patient and the physician in jeopardy. This has been seen as one of the negative effect of the pharmaceutical industry advertising directly to the consumers (Polen, 39). There is controversy related to pharmaceutical advertisement and various quarters are opposed to the increased advertisement while others view this as a better way of informing the consumers. Those opposed argue that advertisements have adversely and negatively affected patients as well as physicians. It has been cited that these advertisements does not list the side effects of the drugs to the patients and also conceal some very important information pertaining to a particular drug (Parker,

What do you think will be issues that will influence the key sill Essay

What do you think will be issues that will influence the key sill requirements for next 5 to 10 years - Essay Example These specifically include the issues that can affect the operations of the company. In relation to the above statement, the thrust of this paper is to discuss the issues that can affect the company and can further influence the key skill requirements of the firm in the next 5 to 10 years. For a huge corporation like Sinopec, it is a basic requirement for the firm to have highly competent managers who are experts and knowledgeable in the field of energy and chemical industry. It is also important to the managerial department of the firm to know how to deal with different types of employees. The role of the managers is very important in keeping the daily operations of the company in order. It is also a great challenge for Sinopec to enhance the understanding and practices of their managers on the importance of responsible leadership. The specifically include the enhancement of the competencies of the managers to integrate social and environmental considerations in creating business decisions (Wilson & Hind, 2006). A business organisation can hardly perform its daily operations without the presence of its workforce. Skillful and hardworking workforce is one of the significant factors towards achieving the goals and objectives of business organisations. Their role in the company is very important in achieving the company’s economic triumph. Hence, it is very much important to put into great consideration the satisfaction of the workers, their health, and wellness, and their safety at work considering the kind of industry Sinopec has. The safety of the employees especially those in their plants are of high risks due to the possibility that anytime the plant might explode due to some technical problems or leakage of petroleum same as what happened to Sinopec’s oil terminal in Qingdao China (Moody’s: Sinopec Corp’s , 2013). As above mentioned, the safety of the employees of Sinopec is of high risk due to the kind of industry the firm has.

Marked Women Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Marked Women - Essay Example Marking of women discriminates them and discourage them from airing their views. My opinion is that Tannen’s work is an exploration of a largely ignored topic on gender discrimination. Her work is derived from a close observation of men and women at a working conference. The formal setting of the conference is perfect for exhibiting gender stereotypes, which are dominant in the male-dominated business settings. Marking is also inherent in women as most of them struggle to portray a certain image for them to feel acceptable in some settings. More fascinating was the mention of Ralph Fascold’s book and his opinion on the issue. Marked means possession of a unique feature that distinguishes an individual from the rest. Biological orientation makes men marked owing to the possession of a Y chromosome that is deficient in women. Unmarking of women can only be successful if the society changes the attitude towards gender

Managing Operation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words - 2

Managing Operation - Essay Example Toyota is a Japanese car manufacturing company and it is one of the leading companies in the global automobile industry, producing well known models such as Corolla, Camry and Lexus. Though a late entrant compared to General Motors and Ford, Toyota had become one strongest player in the automobile industry. In an industry generally considered to be mature in terms of technology, Toyota had continued to set benchmarks for providing value to customers more effectively than competitors. Toyota had also redefined the rules of operation management in various areas like product development, manufacturing process, vendor management, customer satisfaction and human resource management. The formal establishment of Toyota motor company ltd., took place in 1937 and since then it has moved onto become the leader in the global automobile industry. By March 31 2008, Toyota group approximately sold 8.9 million vehicles in 170 countries under the Toyota, Lexus, Daihatsu and Hino brands. Since the automobile industry is now facing a recession, Toyota aims to achieve sustainable growth by building a more flexible and stronger operational process and corporate structure to counter the challenges of the hyper competitive market world over (Annual Report, Toyota, 2008). The key objective of this paper will be to examine and evaluate how Toyota successfully manages key components of its operational management such as meeting customer requirements, improving product quality, effective implementation of projects as well as efficient monitoring and evaluation of completed projects. The essay will utilise the open system organisational theory and how it is manifested in the Toyota Production System (TPS) to guide the operations of the company. Thereafter, the TPS will be utilised to highlight how Toyota manages the procedures associated with new product introduction and old product improvement as well as

Women and Flexibility in the Workplace (week 2 assignment) Assignment

Women and Flexibility in the Workplace (week 2 ) - Assignment Example However, as time passes by, women’s role have changed and therefore, their needs have changed also. With the changing society, women need more flexibility. Women face structural and social issues that affects their flexibility in the workplace. However, there will come a time wherein the workplace will adapt to the changing workforce to be more productive. In the video, Open Mind: Women as Agents of Change Part I (2005), Kathleen Christensen raised the issue of the flexibility of women in the workplace. She argued that women need more flexibility in the workplace and the flexibility they needed is based on structural and social issue. Christensen believed that the private individual issues women are facing are not individual issues. She believes that these issues are structural problems. She believed that the structure of workplace is not suitable for the women especially to the mothers (Open Mind, 2005). For the past years, women are expected to take care of the children, sta y and organize home. However, as poverty spreads throughout the country, American women changed roles and entered the workplace which before, is exclusively for men. In 1889, Jane Addams and Ellen Gates opened an opportunity for middle class women to work, thus ignited the evolution of women in the workplace (Giraffe, 2011). This opportunity gave women the chance to go beyond what they are expected to do. This lifted the spirits of many women in the history and inspired them to pursue more participation in the society. Based on the history of America, women served as important instruments of change. Women fought for their rights that resulted to many changes in America. They participated in wars and leadership. Women proved that they are not only for housekeeping but they are also for the works that men usually do (Smith, 2009). The works women do in the society is indeed helpful for the progress of the country, however, their first role as mothers still outweighs their roles as wor kers in the society. The role of women as mothers and household keeper is in conflict with the demands of the present structure of workplace. The present workplace structure of the society is in conflict with the lifestyle of women. It affects their flexibility in work especially in time. The workplace of the society is designed for male workers. From the beginning, men are the ones working for the family. Most of the employers in workplace demands full time job (Giraffe, 2011). This means that the desired employees should have a lot of time and focus for the work. The jobs that requires full time employees are not suited for women workers who have family. After working, women are expected to organize home and look after their children. The required 40-hour a week for an employee is heavy for a woman who has children to take care of (Open Mind, 2005). This is the reason why some women are not flexible enough to do requirement of their jobs. Aside from the demanding schedule, the str ucture of workplace is designed for men’s activity. Before, farming is the dominating available work for people. During industrialization, different companies opened and created more jobs. Also the prominent available jobs during that time are on steel, coal, mining and cars industries (Giraffe, 2011). It can be analyzed that throughout the history, the workplace is designed for male workers. Although the war made an opportunity for women to participate in labor work because most men were in the battlefield, the work give to women are just temporary and inappropriate. Today, the available jobs can now be categorized as blue collar and white collar. However, most companies still view women as less competitive compared to men that’s why women cannot sometimes be in the job they wanted to be.

How is the Marketing Concept and Its Implementation Responding to Essay

How is the Marketing Concept and Its Implementation Responding to Developments in the Macro-Environment - Essay Example According to the research findings marketing is mainly concerned with trade or exchange. The basic form of trade started when humankind started producing surplus. Humankind produced agricultural products and exchanged them with manufactured goods like earthenware or textiles. Such exchange brought about areas that promoted trade for instance, local markets and village fairs. The development of trade and marketing enabled individuals to specialize production of certain products and services to be traded in markets for ore products required. In the 18th century, the economy of UK changed during the early industrial revolution, leading to rise in industrial production and subsequent loss of dependence on agricultural products. Prior to the industrial revolution, the distribution and production of goods was mainly in small scale. Consequently, industrialization leads to a dramatic increase in productivity, because of technology development. As a result, enterprises enlarged, production i ncreased, and products became more standardized. Companies produced in large numbers for local, national and international markets. Factory systems grew leading to migration of people from rural homes to new and quickly expanding industrial cities and towns. Because of rapid developments during the industrial revolution periods, companies produced volumes more that the local economy could accommodate. Therefore, consumption spread over wider geographical distances, leading to loss of immediate contacts between the producers and the markets. A number of thinking entrepreneurs organized their business transactions in a (marketing oriented† way to deals with this problem, even though the terms â€Å"marketing orientation† or †marketing† were rare until the twentieth century, (Hult and Speh, 2010, p 45). For producers to manufacture products and services that would attract and sell in vastly scarce markets, they had to analyze, interpret and understand the wants and needs of consumers and product, which would appeal and fit in with the wants and needs of such consumers. The process of correlating the firm resources to the wants and needs of the market place is known as entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurs had to sense the requirements of the market in terms quality, prices and design, and later plan production and distribution strategies to meet efficient demands of consumers at a profit. Emergence of industrialization led to specialization and further division of labour, leading to increased productivity, which further reduced costs, and thus the products selling price. Consequently, the increase in work specialization led to increased desire for trade, (Kotler, Keller, Dubious and Marceau, 2006, p 105). Production in large scale led to marketing channels emerging to improve product distribution, and meet the effective demand for more goods by the vast markets. Such developments established essential foundations for the contemporary industrial economy that is still grounded on the critical concepts of exchange and trade. In the mid nineteenth century, Britain dominated the forces of the world economy. The main factor outlining Britain's industrial growth and development was the emergence of international trade. This was because, Britain was the first to secure raw materials supplies, and had a dominated the supply of manufactured products in the expense of underdeveloped nations that collectively formed the British Empire. Later, the United States and Germany emerged as competing industrials nations/powers. Even though United Kingdom experience stiff competition from the economically developing nations in the sectors of coal, steel and textile, British economy still dominated the economy till the first world war. Other countries generated more income that led to rise in effective demand for raw materials, goods and services. The United Kingdom total trade value increased although its international trad

Legalizing Gambling Essay Example for Free

Legalizing Gambling Essay Gambling is legal in many places, its not either a criminal or dangerous activity provided it is done responsibly, and in accordance with the law. Have you ever wagered on a game? If so you were gambling and should have been fined. Lawmakers have decided that it is evil to gamble, they have justified it as a means to scam billions from citizens in order to compensate for their mismanagement of tax revenue. They pass laws that could put a taxpayer in jail for placing a single dollar wager on a pool game. Legalizing gambling nationally could potentially benefit our economic situation. All gambling was once legal. Looking back only 75-100 years ago most of our states had lotteries in place. Over the past century, as a result of abuse and moral fervor the majority forms of gambling have been prohibited. The history of gambling in the United States evolved from Europe. The Puritans and Quakers took little time to create first laws against gambling in 1638. Casino gambling is becoming increasingly popular especially in southern states. Native Americans are allowed to establish bingo parlors and casinos on their reservations, although Las Vegas and Atlantic City remain gambling tourist top destination choice. Many states allow horse and dog racing tracks and then there’s the people who bet on sporting events, card games, and almost anything you can imagine in the privacy of their own home. The first thing to do is to regulate gambling, both land-based and online. After the legislative base is created and regulation covers every aspect of the gambling industry, its half way to being legalized. I don’t see why we should lose a couple dollars to a pool hustler, when we could be hustled legally by the state. Gambling offers individuals the adrenaline rush that greater opportunity lies within their own hands. People should not be denied an activity that they enjoy partaking in. Government can earn revenues from legalized gambling which can be diverted towards bettering our society. Legalizing gambling would increase employment opportunities in society which could help to reduce the amount of working capable people out of a job. Gambling establishments have shown to increase employment opportunities as well as improve tourism in the right areas. The presence of gambling establishments is also beneficial to society because they can contribute the revenues to local governments which then could use the profits for social programs that would benefit both gamblers and non gamblers. Legalized commercial gambling is becoming an increasing controversy within our state governments. There is no doubt that many different forms of legalized gambling has exploded in the region and around the country, if the government gives full support of legalization they will be doing all US citizens a favor. Some argue that gambling is an addiction, one that can become dangerous and harmful to the general public. The truth is that like all other influenced jobs it can be a way of making a living for yourself and your family. Though there are a lot of people that struggle with an addiction to gambling, there are probably just as many people who are responsible gamblers and have enough self control to moderate there wagering hobbies. Legalizing gambling nationally will help stimulate our struggling economy in many ways. If our government would be willing to try to implement new laws to legalize and regulate it theres no way a short time period of testing these ideas would leave any permanent damage on our nation.

About the bridge and router

About the bridge and router Introduction In this current assignment I will discuss about the bridge and router. This assignment I will explain the definition of what is a bridge and a router in detail. The bridge and router has its own advantages and disadvantages in many ways by looking thru its capability and specification wise. Bridge is a wired connection which is only use for that computer which is connected to it and router is a wireless connection which can be shared by many other computer or laptop. Secondly, I will calculate and find the subnet mask, number address in each subnet and first and last addresses in subnet. 1.The answer is yes it is possible to replace the bridge with a router. Thru coming year our technology is expanding rapidly because of that many alternative way can be done to solve networking problem. I will explain what are a router (refer to figure1.1) and a bridge (refer to figure1.2) individually in performing a task to connect thru the network.   In telecommunication networks of today, the bridge is a device that enables us to connect to the local area network known as local area network to another local area network which uses the same protocol as Ethernet or token ring. You can imagine that the bridge device as being to be able to decide whether a certain context of message from another person to someone else is by going thru to the local area network in your current building or to someone else on the local area network in another building which is located across the street. The bridge examines or checks each message carefully on a local area network, passing thru those which are known to be within the same local area network, and forwarding those which are known to be on the other interconnected local area network. In bridging networks of today, a computer address or a node address have no accurate or specific relationship to location where it is located. For this reason, messages are randomly sent out to every single address located on the current network and only can be accepted by the intended and matching destination node. The bridge learns which addresses are on specific network and create a learning table in order for each subsequent message to be forwarded to the correct network. Bridging networks commonly are always interconnected local area networks since broadcasting each and every message to all available destinations would causes a flood to the larger network with unwanted traffic. For this reason, router networks such as the Internet use a scheme that assigns addresses to nodes so that a message or packet can be forwarded only in one general direction rather than forwarded in all directions. A bridge operate at the data-link level of a network also known as physical network, is by copying a data frame from another network to the next network by moving along the communications path. A bridge contains more overhead and lesser amount of repeater. The bridge processes the packet at only the two layers; the repeater processes each frame at only on one layer. The bridge will need to look for a table and get the forwarding port together for it to regenerate its signal; only the repeater will regenerates the signal. The transparent bridge works by using two processes known as bridge forwarding and bridge learning. If the destination address exists in the forwarding database which is already created, the packet will then be forwarded to the port number to the specific destination host which has been attached. If it doesnt exist in the forwarding database, forwarding will be done on all parts which cause flooding. This process is referred as bridge forwarding. Moreover, as each frame reaches it destination, its source address will indicates where a particular host is located, so that the bridge knows where to forward the frames to that address. This process is called bridge learning. The key features of a transparent bridge is that the stations are not aware of the existence of a transparent bridge and reconfiguration of the bridge is not required because it can be added or removed on its own without knowing. The advantages of bridging is that its self-configuring which doesnt require any skillful technically expertise to configured it because is not as complex as the router. Secondly, the price of a simple bridge device is not expensive at all compared to the router. Thirdly, it isolate collision domain which will reduce the size of collision domain by using micro segmentation in the non-switched network. Fourthly, bridges wont deny the introduction of management or performance information and access control. Fifthly, local area networks interconnected in the bridge are divided and the physical constraints like the number of station, repeater and segment length will not be apply. Sixthly, the bridge manages incoming trafficking and lessens the bandwidth to be wasted by avoiding all unwanted flow of data located in between the network segments. By using this method it can effectively ensure that the optimal performance on both sides of the network segment. Bridges might be functioning jus t like a traffic police on the city street, by controlling the movement of the legitimate data and not allowing all unwanted traffic passing through it. Bandwidth that is wasted will create unwanted delay of time and reduce the performance speed of the current network used. A bridge is therefore can also act as a bandwidth monitor, by channeling important relevant data and discarding rubbish to improve the bandwidth throughput. It also can be thought out as a traffic shaping or a managing firewall. Seventhly, the network bridges improve the functional length of a network by connecting each single local area network segments. A network is possible to be segmented and join together without requiring the need of creating IP subnets or the usage of a router. The network bridges expand the capacity of the network without the requiring for hardware equipment something like cables, and software constraints which is the firewalls. Eighthly, the bridge network is capable of connecting both s imilar and different local area network segments. It is connected, for an instance, an Ethernet segment connected together with a Token Ring segment, which allows both to function as one and by having similar IP address. A bridge connects local area network segments thru many different protocols, a local area network segment including the Internet and a wireless local area network (WLAN) with a local area network segment. The bridge network can also be used to connect two carrier sense multiple access or collision detection (CSMA/ CD) local area network, and a token ring local area networks with a carrier sense multiple access or collision detection (CSMA/ CD) local area network. It is important to connect different segments possessing non-similar protocols for data transmission. The disadvantages of bridging are that the scope of broadcast has no limit in the bridge network. Secondly, extremely large networks are not being scaled in the bridge network. Thirdly, the bridge network delays the length of time for the action to do buffering and processing. Fourthly, repeater and hubs cost a lesser amount of price compared to buying a bridge.   Fifthly, a complex network topology can pose a problem for transparent bridges. For example, multiple paths that are located in between the transparent bridges and local area network can cause the bridge looping. The spanning tree protocol is to help in reducing the problems with complicated topologies. In packet-switching networks such as the Internet which connect to the world wide web, the router is a device that is capable, in some cases, software that are inside the computer, so that it determines from one network to another network point in which a single packet should be   forwarded toward its right destination. The router is connected with at least two networks or more networks and it determine which way to send each packet containing the information based on its own knowledge of the current condition of the working networks that it is connected to. A router can be located at any gateway in where one network can be met with another network, including each point-of-presence on the Internet will surfing in the World Wide Web (WWW). A router is most of the time is included as a fraction from the network switch. The router sometimes can create or maintain the table for the current routes used and its own conditions and using the information together with distance and cost the algorithm to decide on its own to choose the best route for each packet thats been given. Typically, a single packet sometimes moves through a specific number of network points with the use of routers before reaching at its currently set destination. Routing will function by associating with the Network layer which is located in layer 3 where it is in the standard model of network programming, it is called the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model. A layer-3 switch allows the switch to be able to perform routing functions properly. An edge router is another kind of router that interfaces with an asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) network. A brouter is combined with a bridge network and a router. For the home computer users and business computer users which owned a high-speed Internet connection by using a cable, satellite, or digital subscribe line (DSL), the router can be like a hardware firewall. This fact is true because even though if the home or the business owned only a single computer at home or at work place. Out of many of the engineers trust that the usage of a router provides a higher protection level against hacking by hacker compare to a software firewall inside the computer, because none of the computer Internet Protocol address are easy to be revealed to the Internet. This makes the port scan which is a technique for exploring weaknesses almost essentially impossible to be done. In addition, a router does not simply suck up the resources in the computer as a software firewall does. Commercially manufactured routers are easily to be installed, its sold at a reasonable price, and made available for hard-wired network or wireless networks. The advantage of using a router is that the data can be travel between different networks, so that you can use the local area network and wide area network connectivity at the same time. The router has many different type of connections which can be connected to a lot of architecture, many kind of media from the internet and also for internal use within an organization. The router is useful for transferring data to others because it makes its own decision by taking the best route and paths in order to get the correct data to the target node. Router has domain that will cause smaller collisions. Wireless Internet also known as the router provides super quick broadband speed, approaching up to two megabytes per second or even quicker. More and more customers are hoping for the broader bandwidth, so the number should slowly crawl up steadily over for the next few months or years to come. Wireless internet is more reasonable and has better performance wise over the satellite broadband , this is because satellite signals typically needs to travel around tens of thousands of miles away. Wireless internet is also extremely responsive, when you are launching up the web pages, downloading emails is quicker, and able to engage in teleconferencing or video conferencing over the internet, your wireless internet system will be able to yield ultra quick transmission. Weather condition, radio frequencies distraction, and traffic congestion can all impede wireless internet flow. Moreover, with the building of transmission towers across each nation, it safe to say that if people who live within a average proximity of an urban area, those people will be more closer to the wireless Internet tower. The wireless Internet broadband service allows rural Web surfers a certain way to get into the high speed telecommunications without requiring to lay down the fiber or reconfiguring in the public switched telephone network system according to the updated digital subscribe line (DSL) sta ndards. Thus, sending communications to a much smaller town in certain area which lacks of cable infrastructure or merely seeking to dodge the slow speed and sometimes complicate the plans associated with digital subscribe line (DSL), wireless Internet is just a beautiful method to boost your surfing time. The disadvantages of a router is because of the cost of the router will be more as it is more expensive compared to the hub, bridge switch. The router has more bandwidth when it is interconnected with many buildings or when it is doing some updating.The router must have a larger latency during the time when there are a lot of packets to be sorted. With the help of wireless Internet service, there still the problem of someone with bad intention, inside within the wireless traffic, hacking to get into your own connection from a distance away and its done by a person known as a hacker. So, you will need to make sure that youre using the wireless security to make sure all the private information in it is kept safe from other stranger viewers such as hacker. There are many available firewalls which work and perform task better enough for this specific purpose or you can just go look into by using the network system which is able to create a password protected connections. Verizon wireless and Sprint wireless are two out of many popular wireless companies in the business of today. Verizon wireless offers several different kinds of wireless devices which are often used by customer. Hand phones and wireless broadband Internet are also very popular services that they currently offering. Not only that they also provide service for personal digital assistant (PDA) and wireless personal computer (PC) cards. Wireless technology can appear in many different kind of various forms as well. You will be able to find wireless speakers for the stereo system also, wireless headphones for communicating, wireless receivers and transmitters and even microphones to talk over the net. You can also find wireless computer mouse, wireless keyboards, satellite television (TV), cordless telephones and even the garage door controller without manually doing it. In the next coming generation will probably bring us to a world filled with many kind of wireless technology devices. H ard wired devices will in the end up as being a device or a thing from the past generation, once wireless technology will enlarge. As the wireless Internet technology improves, personal digital assistants (PDA), blackberry devices, and other well known hand phones or personal computer (PC) hybrids will likely depend on it increasingly on non-fiber based transmissions. Thus by learning yourself for now about the current wireless Internet trends and developing initiatives, that you can knowingly position yourself as the earliest adopter of the next generation of Wi-Fi concerned technologies. Understanding what is what at its cutting edge of telecom tech development will also fill your overall investment portfolio. Bridge device has some similarity with a router, but it does not analyze the data that is being forwarded. Because of this, bridges are typically quicker at transferring data, than but not as versatile as a router. For example, the bridge cannot work as a firewall like most of the routers can in which show the disadvantages of the bridge compare to the router. A bridge is capable for transferring data between different protocols such as a Token Ring and Ethernet network. A router on the other hand are like traffic police, they examine each single packet of data, get the accurate destination address and forwards it thru the network to be sent to the right address. Bridging and routing are both method of performing data control, but it work through many kind of different methods. Bridging takes place at Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Model Layer 2 which is referred as data-link layer while routing takes place at the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Model Layer 3 which is referred as network layer. This difference the meaning of a bridge and a router where a bridge directs frames by following the hardware assigned media control access (MAC) addresses while a router makes its own decisions based on the arbitrarily assigned internet protocol (IP) Addresses. As a result of that, bridges are not bothered with and are not able to recognize networks while routers can capable of doing that. Open System Interconnection (OSI) Model Layer 2 is the protocol layer which will transfer the data located between the adjacent network nodes in the wide area network (WAN) or in between the nodes on similar local area network (LAN) segment. Data link layer also provides functional and procedural means to move the data between network entities and sometimes provide the means to spot and mostly correct errors that may happen in the Physical Layer. Data link layer is also related with local delivery of frames in between the device on similar local area network (LAN). Data link frames, as these protocol data units are used to be referred as, will not go over the limit of a local network. Inter-network routing and global addressing are bigger layer functions, allowing data link protocols to concentrate on local delivery, addressing, and media arbitration. By using this way, the data link layer is analogous to specific neighborhood traffic cop; it endeavors to arbitrate in between parties contending for gaining access to the medium. When a devices attempt to make use of a medium during the same time, frame collisions happen. Data link protocols specify how devices spot and heal from such collisions, but it will not stop it from occurring. Delivery of frames from layer 2 devices can affect the use of unambiguous hardware addresses. The frames header will contains source and location addresses that will show which device originated the frame and which device can be ignore to get and process it. In other word, the hierarchical and routable addresses from the network layer, layer two addresses are flat, meaning theres no part of the address that might be able to be used in order to find out the logical or physical group to which the address come from. The data link also provides data transfer moving across the physical link. That will be able to transfer many data link protocols which do not have acknowledgments of successful frame reception and acceptance, and certain amount of the data link protocols maybe will not even have any form of checksum to find or scan for the transmission errors. In this case, higher-level protocols will provide flow control, error finding, and acknowledgments and retransmission. Open System Interconnection (OSI) Model Layer 3 is the network layer job is to do end-to-end packet sending including routing thru intermediate hosts, where else the data link layer job is to do node-to-node frame sending on similar links. The network layer will also provides functional and procedural means of transferring changeable length data sequences from one source to one location host thru a single or multiple network while maintaining the standard of the service and error control functions. This difference the meaning of a bridge and a router where a bridge directs frames by following the hardware assigned media control access (MAC) addresses while a router makes its own decisions based on the arbitrarily assigned internet protocol (IP) Addresses. As a result of that, bridges are not bothered with and are not able to recognize networks while routers can capable of doing that. When designing or creating a network, one can choose to insert multiple segments into a single bridged network or to divide them into many different networks interconnected by using routers. If a host is physically transferred from the current network area to next network in a routed network, it has to obtain a new internet protocol (IP) address; if the system has been transferred within the bridged network, it doesnt have to be change or modified anything. The consequence which by replacing a bridge with a router is that the router will cost more expensive than the price of a bridge and more complex to be set up or understand compared to a bridge. Secondly, router operates only at the first three-layers of the network while the bridge operates only at the first two layer of the network. Thirdly, is that router are not created to provide direct filtering compared to a bridge which does it. Fourthly, a router normally requires a longer amount of time which makes it time consuming in order for it to search for the routing table compared to searching for the filtering table which takes up lesser amount of time to be searched. Fifthly, a router is required to decapsulate and encapsulates the specific frame and modified the current physical addresses in the frame because the physical addresses in the arriving frame define the old node and the present router; both must be change to the physical addresses following the current router and the n ext hop. The bridge does not modify the current physical addresses. Changing addresses, and other fields, in the frame means causing a lot of unwanted overhead. 2a) Log ² 500=8.95 extras 1s=9 possible subnets: 29=512 mask: 9+8=/17 b) 232-17=215=32768 addresses for each subnet c) The first subnet: The first address is the starting address of the block. 16. 0. 0. 0 In order to find the last address, you need to write 32,767 (one lesser than the number of addresses in each subnet) in base 256 (0.0.127.255) and adding it with the first address (in base 256). First address in subnet 1:  16.0.0.0 Number of addresses:  0.0.127. 255 Last address in subnet1:  16.0.127.255 d) The last subnet: Note that the subnet 500 will not be the last possible subnet; but it will be the last subnet used by the organization. In order to find the first address in subnet 500, you will need to add 16,351,232 (499 ÃÆ'- 32678) in base 256 (0. 249.128.0) into the first address in subnet First address in subnet 1:  16.0.0.0 Number of addresses:  0.249.128.0 First address in subnet 500: 16.249.128.0 Now you can be able to calculate the last address in subnet 500. First address in subnet 500:16.249.128.0 Number of addresses: 0.0.127.255 Last address in subnet 500: 16.249.255.255 Conclusion In conclusion, we learn that bridges and router has their own advantages over each other. For example, the bridge will not be distracted by any other device which will intercept the connection because it uses cable to connect to the network without moving thru the air. Another example is that the router is able to be connected by many other computers within a certain range in distance unlike bridge which is able to be used by a single connected computer only. There are consequences of replacing the bridge with the router is that the router will cost more than the price of the bridge. Abstract In telecommunication networks of today, the bridge is a device that enables us to connect to the local area network. The bridge examines or checks each message carefully on a local area network. In bridging networks of today, a node address have no accurate relationship to location where it is located. Bridging networks commonly are always interconnected local area networks. A bridge operates at the data-link level of a network by copying a data frame from another network to the next network. A bridge contains more overhead and lesser amount of repeater. The transparent bridge works by using two processes known as bridge forwarding and bridge learning. The advantages of bridging is that its self-configuring which doesnt require any skillful technically expertise. The disadvantages of bridging are that the scope of broadcast has no limit. The router is connected with at least two networks or more networks and it determine which way to send each packet. Routing will function by associa ting with the Network layer which is located in layer 3 where it is called the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model. The advantage of using a router is that the data can be travel between different networks. The disadvantages of a router is because of the cost of the router is more expensive than the hub. Bridging and routing are both method of performing data control. Bridging takes place at Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Model Layer 2 while routing takes place at the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Model Layer 3. Protocol layer will transfer the data located between the adjacent network nodes and network layer job is to do end-to-end packet sending. The consequence which by replacing a bridge with a router is that the router will cost more expensive. Reference 1) Wikianswer What are the Advantages of routers over bridges[online]. Available from:http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_are_the_Advantages_of_routers_over_bridges 2) Wikipedia Bridging (networking)[online]. Available from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridging_(networking) 3) SearchSecurity What is bridge?[online]. Available from: http://searchsecurity.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,,sid14_gci211705,00.html 4) SearchNetworking What is router?[online]. Available from: http://searchnetworking.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,,sid7_gci212924,00.html 5) Mcgraw hill Connecting LANs, Backbone Networks, and Virtual Networks[online].Available from:http://highered.mcgrawhill.com/sites/dl/free/0072967757/281778/SolStd15.pdf 6) Wapedia Wiki:Bridging(networking)[online]. Available   from:http://wapedia.mobi/en/Bridging_(networking) 7) eHow The Advantages of a Network Bridge[online]. Available from: http://www.ehow.com/list_6023005_advantages-network-bridge.html 8) blurtit What Are The Advantages And Disadvantages Of Using A Router?[online]. Available from: http://www.blurtit.com/q7578003.html 9) zimbio Advantages And Disadvantages For Wireless Internet[online]. Available from:http://www.zimbio.com/Keyword+Marketing/articles/5/Advantages+Disadvantages+Wireless+Internet 10) Wikipedia Network Layer[online]. Available from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_Layer 11) Wikipedia Data Link Layer[online]. Available from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_Link_Layer 12) (figure1.1) Available from:http://www.belindahaikes.com/VisualCultureandTechnology/VCT1998/68573-router-diagram.gif 13)(figure1.2) Available from:http://www.oreillynet.com/network/2001/03/16/graphics/Figure4_2.jpg

Duty To Protect Vs. Duty To Warn When Dealing With Dangerous Clients

Duty To Protect Vs. Duty To Warn When Dealing With Dangerous Clients Nearly every mental health professional has faced the difficult task of having a client at one time or another that may pose a danger to themselves or someone else. This situation can present a conflict at times for therapists and others who are torn between preserving client confidentiality and protecting others from potential harm. Fortunately, there are legal procedures in place for dealing with this kind of dilemma. The downside to this, however, is that the legal guidelines are not always the same in each jurisdiction. Being aware of the specific methods for and legal obligations for dealing with these kinds of situations within each specific state is the responsibility of the practitioner, and can be difficult for therapists who may practice in more than one state or who relocate their offices from one state to another after a period of time. However, knowing a little bit of background about the duty to warn and the duty to protect and the cases that led to the imposition of these legal duties can help guide therapists and other mental health professionals in implementing ethical strategies for dealing with these kinds of circumstances. The legal concepts of duty to warn and duty to protect were first introduced in 1976, with the case of Tarasoff V. Regents of the University of California. This case established that therapists are obligated to inform an identified third party of potential danger if a client indicates that he or she may harm another individual. However, a large number of states also have a strict set of guidelines for executing the duty to warn in that there must be evidence of the possibility of serious danger or harm, the harm is very likely to occur, and that the targeted individual has been clearly identified. While the duty to warn refers specifically to notifying a potential third party of the imminent danger or harm, the duty to protect has broader implications. With the duty of protect, which is an option only in some states or jurisdictions, the therapist still has the legal obligation to protect a third party from danger but can do so through a variety of options such as hospitalization, more rigorous outpatient therapy, or other methods of intervention that still enable the therapist to maintain client confidentiality. While the duty to protect is a preferred method of dealing with these kinds of situations among mental health care professionals, this form of legislation is only in place in 24 states, with an additional nine states operating under this duty due to imposed court decisions in district or regional court systems. Exceptions to the duty to warn can be seen in a number of instances when the general public is concerned. In most situations, therapists are under no obligation to warn the general public about the risk of danger from one individual, even if a threat is noted. The implications of this exception are particularly of importance when it comes to the threat of transmission of HIV and other contractible diseases. In most states it is already illegal to knowingly infect another person or group of people with HIV. However, therapists are not legally obligated, and even discouraged from, warning the general public about the risk of transmission of HIV from a knowingly infected client. In this instance, client rights and confidentiality would prevail. Another instance where the duty to warn and the duty to protect are of importance is when it comes to the threat of child abuse. In many states, therapists and other professionals are obligated to report when a child may be in danger or is being harmed, often without regard to client confidentiality or an obligation to further provide additional intervention or treatment to the client. However, the problem that is seen in many states or situations is that there are no clearly defined guidelines as to how severe the harm has to be in order for a therapist to breach confidentiality. While most legislation specifies that there must be a â€Å"clear and immediate danger,† the definition of this can be construed differently by many people and at different times. For example, spanking could be perceived as some to be a â€Å"clear and immediate danger† to children, while to others, the threat would have to be much more severe in order to violate client confidentiality in favo r of protecting a child. While it is clear that there are many legal obligations that therapists have to warn others about potential dangers and to protect clients and others from harm when the need arises, the difficulty in executing many of these duties often lies in ambiguous guidelines in many jurisdictions. Often, it is an ethical decision that each individual practitioner must make based on their own principles, the laws within their specific jurisdiction, and their perception of the way the law is defined and the specific situation.

The Terror Management Theory Essay -- Psychology, Fear of Death

Many may agree with the old saying that â€Å"beauty is only skin deep,† but does beauty come in a particular shade of color? This question is very debatable for many, but the fact of the matter is that human beings are born in array of skin tones. These differences in skin tone are used to categorize people into different ethnic groups. Lopez proposes thatâ€Å"ethnic identity is a type of group identity that is related to a better outcome because it provides a sense of belonging or cultural embeddedness.†(p.102) Dr. Ronald Hall (2006) suggests that in America minorities or people of color are called black in relative terms to the majority who are of European descent i.e. white. Some studies have discovered that a more â€Å"ethnic appearance† is usually assessed by a darker skin color i.e, black and is associated with a worse outcome in life (Lopez, 2008) In contrast, beauty, wealth and overall appeal are associated with physiological proximity to the white p ower structure i.e., light skin. (Hall, 2006) It appears as though desirable skin complexions are culturally relative. The terror management theory is a motivational theory which speculates that human beings have an underlying fear of death. These feelings are managed within that person by developing or maintaining a two- part cultural anxiety buffer; an individual worldview and a sense of self value or self-esteem. (Pyszczynski,Greenberg, & Solomon, 1997) According to the theory, high self-esteem reflects the successful participation in and internalization of meaningful cultural worldview. (Schmeichel, Gailliot, Filardo, MrGregor, Gitter, &Baumeister 2009) Goldenberg and Shakelford (2005) suggested that â€Å"the need for self-esteem is often seen as the master motive that underlies much o... ...ive. Those who engage themselves in processes such as tanning or skin bleaching do so to help boost their self-esteem. From the perspective of the terror management theory, individuals are motivated to live up to cultural standards because doing so grants self-esteem. The boost in self-esteem acts as a buffer for potential anxiety relative to awareness of personal immortality. (Cox et al., 2009) TMT determines that people aim to live up to social standards in order deal with personal insecurities about dying. If a psychological structure provides protection from thoughts about death, then reminding people of death will increase the need for that structure. (Goldenberg, Pyzszcsynski, Greenberg,Solomon, Kluck, &Cornwall, 2001) Within terms of this study, it is speculated that as mortality salience increases, so does an individual’s need to alter his own skin color.

Power Play in Samuel Beckett’s Endgame Essay -- Samuel Beckett Endgame

Power Play in Samuel Beckett’s Endgame In a shelter devoid of sunlight and laughter, the family in Samuel Beckett’s Endgame all struggle to find their niches within their world. Central to the play physically and emotionally, Hamm has the ability to make the others revolve around him. Clov, physically the healthiest in the family, has a power that even Hamm could not define until very late in the play. Nagg and Nell, the elderly parents of Hamm, hold the power of memories. Although some characters may appear weaker than the others at times, Hamm, Clov, Nagg and Nell all hold a source of power, resulting in a weak type of mutualism in the family dynamics. Hamm is blind and unable to stand. However, sitting in a chair at the centre of the room, he is the axis of power in the family. Hamm repeatedly says, â€Å"Outside of here it’s death† (2475) and, according to Clov’s observations, the world outside has indeed been forsaken by nature and is awash in desolation. Therefore, as the owner of the shelter, Hamm has the power to protect Clov, Nagg, and Nell. Hamm makes the house rules even though he does not have the physical ability to enforce the rules: â€Å"I’ll give you just enough to keep you from dying. You’ll be hungry all the time† (2474). There is nowhere else to go, so in order to survive, everyone abides by Hamm’s commands. Clov humours Hamm, because it is Hamm who took him into the shelter when Clov was a child. With a paternal power over Clov, Hamm has the power to make Clov suffer. He controls Clov like a puppeteer, telling the latter to withdraw or to go close to him. Using Clov as a physical extension of himself, Hamm is able to â€Å"bottle† his father Nagg when the latter complains he is unable to eat the hard bisc... ...dysfunctional family, amidst their painful existence, manages balance their powers and to mutually co-exist. Words have much power, and Hamm retains his grip on his family by his commands. However, Clov – Hamm’s eyes and limbs – has power that matches Hamm’s, because if Clov leaves, no one will be able to physically support them. Nagg and Nell have the power of words and memories, as well as that of listening skills. They are the perfect audience for Hamm, who feels that dialogue is his main reason for living. Without them, Hamm will have no more reasons to continue living. Precariously balanced, the power play in Beckett’s play is like that of its title: an endgame fraught with dangers and overshadowed with doom. Works Cited Beckett, Samuel. Endgame. 1958. Norton Anthology of English Literature. 7th ed. 2 vols. New York: Norton, 2000, 2: 2472-2500.

Human Rights and Police Brutality

Human Rights and Police Brutality BY gajartjarj5653 Police brutality is the use of any force exceeding that reasonably necessary to accomplish a lawful police purpose. Composition 1 Argumentative Research Essay Final Draft. Police Brutality Police work is dangerous. Sometimes police put in situations that excessive force is needed. But, because some officers use these extreme measures in situations when it is not, police brutality occurs.I believe Popremium 1383 Words 6 Pages Police Brutality Analyzing an Argument This argument is directed to two different types of people: he police and the public. This addresses two different types of an audience. It addresses a hostile audience and it addresses a sympathetic audience. You can who the audience is because the author tells you in the Premium 528 Words 3 Pages Police Brutality Report Proposal for: Police Brutality Introductory Statement: Police brutality is one of the biggest human rights violations in the United States.Sometimes polic e are put into situations that excessive force is necessary; but, because some officers use these extreme measures in situations when it is not ompletely necessary, police brutality spremium 631 Words 3 Pages Argumentative Essay: Opposing Capital Punishment English Composition ENIOI S-6LC October 12, 2011 Argumentative Essay: Opposing Capital Punishment According to the Death Penalty Information Center, a brief overview of capital punishment throughout history would go like this: Back in the eighteenth century B.C. death penalty laws were firstPremium 2343 Words 10 Pages The Function of an Argumentative Essay Argumentative Essay The function of an argumentative essay is to show that your ssertion (opinion, theory, hypothesis) about some phenomenon or phenomena is correct or more truthful than others'. The art of argumentation is not an easy skill to acquire.

The Underwriting Challenges Facing P.S.V. Insurers in Kenya

keen-sighted prime(a) opening An Over shot by St evening L. unripe Professor of Economics and Statistics Chair, incision of Economics Baylor University Prep atomic spell 18d for the Baylor University Faculty experience Seminar on keen Choice conjecture May 2002 2002, Steven L. Green It has been verbalise that nation is the worst mould of g e actu either in allyplacenment activity boot go forth all(prenominal) the aboriginal(a)s that deliver been tried. -Winston ChurchillIt line upms easy to occupy that reasonableity involves roughly(prenominal) features that behind non be center fieldmarized in landmarks of around(prenominal)what(prenominal) straightforwarfared formula, a lot(prenominal) as binary unity. But this quotation does non immediately lead to alternate characterizations that energy be regarded as satis itemory, even though the inadequacies of the tralatitious assumptions of sane doings commonplacely pulmonary tuberculosis d in stinting orifice realise perish hard to deny. It raiseament non be an easy labor to find set backments for the threadbargon assumptions of keen-sighted deportment hat eject be prime in the customs dutyal scotchal literature, ii beca use the identified deficiencies hasten been charmn as affair for sort of divergent reme withers, and everywherely because on that point is little commit of finding an pick assumption structure that allow be as open and usable as the traditional assumptions of self-seeking maximization, or of consistency of selection. Amartya Sen (1990, p. 206) 1. Introduction sagacious Choice Theory is an progression utilise by accessible scientists to understand human carri mount.The onrush has broad been the dominant paradigm in economics, neverthe slight in recent decades it has acquire to a great limit widely used in new(prenominal) disciplines such as Sociology, Political Science, and Anthropology. This depict of the demythologized select admittance beyond conventional economic issues is discussed by Becker (1976), Radnitzky and Bernholz (1987), Hogarth and Reder (1987), Swedberg (1990), and Green and Shapiro (1996). The master(prenominal)(prenominal) purpose of this piece is to countenance an oer research of lucid lean weft speculation for the non-specialist.I source give awayline the basal assumptions of the sensible option approach, on that pointfore I stick out near(prenominal) physical exertions of its use. I ask chosen my pillow slips to expand how widely the sharp-witted weft shape has been utilise. In the physical composition I in exchangeable manner discuss whatever suppositions as to why the perspicacious quality approach has be fall a great deal(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) prevalent in whatsoever(prenominal)(prenominal) disciplines in recent classs. One topic is that the apt excerption approach hightail its to provid e opportunities for the unfermented hindrance of theories. I signal that these opportunities atomic name 18 the entrust primarily of the numeral record of the approach.I because take on more(prenominal) or less(prenominal)(prenominal) issues raised by keen-sighted perceptiveness opening. First, I comp atomic way out 18 the mode set up operator of sensibleity in reasonable weft execu display panelness with the much than popular definitions of the border use by philosophers. Second, I f completely upon any(prenominal) of the main criticisms that progress to been levied against the sane survival of the fittest approach. Third, I look at the limitations of coherent selection moldings as guides to public insurance policy. Fourth, I review some Christian perspectives on the sharp survival appraoch.I end the makeup by outlining three baffles of interrogatives I would cor answering us to discuss in the susceptibility recrudescement seminar. Before I proceed, an apology and a precaution be in order. I apologize for the length of this paper. The British publisher Lord Beaverbrook once apologized to a friend for sending a five- rascal letter, citeing he did non have duration to write a angiotensin converting enzyme-page letter. I have the same sen epochnt hither(predicate). The caveat is that my word of the sane selection surmisal in this paper is unavoidably simplistic, so the lector should non take it as definitive.If some division of the supposition seems fly-by-night in some modality, on that point testament nigh always be an move version of the surmisal published somew here(predicate) that is to a greater extent(prenominal) than subtle and nuanced. Most statements in this paper be subject to strength on m apiece lines, so the endorser should view what I be here backuping in approximation the end of the paper, which is wholly to give the reader some reason of the boilers suit f lavor of the demythologized excerption approach. 2. Basic Assumptions virtually Choice Determination noetic Choice Theory by and large begins with circumstance of the extract seemance of ace or much than item-by-item finish- devising units which in raw material economics atomic summate 18 virtually frequently rotrs and/or firms. The rational choice theoretician very much presumes that the individual decision- make unit in foreland is characteristic or deputy of some larger gathering such as buyers or securities industryers in a subdivisionicular commercialize. Once individual manner is established, the compendium principally moves on to look how individual choices move to maturate imports.A rational choice abstract of the market for irreverent tomatoes, for example, would primarily involve a translation of (i) the in demand(p) lever senescences of tomatoes by buyers, (ii) the likingd output and sales of tomatoes by sellers, and (iii) ho w these passiond purchases and desired sales interact to determine the determine and pith of m stary sold of tomatoes in the market. The true tomato buyer is faced with the occupation of how a lot of his income (or more narrowly, his food budget) to die on tomatoes as opposed to some anformer(a)(prenominal) well(p)-grounded or answer.The re lay outative tomato seller is faced with the problem of how m whatever tomatoes to produce and what wrong to posture for them. Exactly how does the buyer choose how often of his income to deliver it on tomatoes? Exactly how does the seller choose how mevery tomatoes to produce and what bell to charge? One could imagine a tot up of answers to these questions. They top executive choose found on custom or habit, with afoot(predicate) decisions s necessitate a continuation of what has been do (for whatever reason) in the past. The decisions might be do randomly.In contrast, the rational choice approach to this problem is f ound on the positive premise that the choices do by buyers and sellers argon the choices that outperform help them achieve their accusives, disposed(p) all relevant itemors that ar beyond their control. The sancti angiotensin-converting enzymed idea behind rational choice surmise is that population do their best under prevailing spate. What is meant, exactly, by best achieve their objectives and do their best? The discussion in this section give emphasize the choices of consumers. 1 The rational choice supposition of consumer demeanour is establish on the sp be- condemnation activity axioms regarding consumer appreciations2 1) The consumer faces a know set of alternating(a) choices. 2) For whatsoever pair of alternatives (A and B, rate), the consumer all prefers A to B, prefers B to A, or is indifferent surrounded by A and B. This is the axiom of carry throughness. 3) These taste sensations atomic second 18 transitive. That is, if a consumer prefers A to B and B to C, thence she necessarily prefers A to C. If she is indifferent amidst A and B, and indifferent amongst B and C, then she is necessarily indifferent between A and C. ) The consumer leave behind choose the almost favourite(a) alternative. 3 If the consumer is indifferent between 2 or more alternatives that argon preferred to all others, he or she go forth choose angiotensin-converting enzyme of those alternatives with the specific choice from among them stay indeterminate. When economists speak of rational doings, they normally mean solo behavior that is in accord with the above axioms. I sell the definition of rationality in more detail near the end of the paper on a lower floor. Rational choice theories normally stand for appreciations with a proceeds break d accept.This is a mathematical function that assigns a numerical comfort to to to distri providedively wholeness single practical alternative set about the decision get throughr. As a tru thful example, suppose a consumer purchases two primitives. let x mention the enactment of units of honourable 1 consumed and y harbinger the subjugate of units of honourable 2 consumed. The consumers expediency function is apply by U = U(x,y), where the function U(,) assigns a calculate ( expediency) to some(prenominal) inclined set of determine for x and y. 4 The comelyties of a large act of specific function forms for U(,) have been look ated. 5 The compendium is by no federal agency cut back to two goods, though in many fibers the analyst finds it expedient to live with that x is the good of interest is and y is a composite good re devoteing phthisis of everything neverthe slight good x. The function U(,) is normally expect to have accredited properties. First, it is generally fake that more is preferred to less so that U rises with additions in x and with ad centres in y. A nonher way of saying this is to say that marginal improvement is posit ive where the term marginal service is the falsify in profit associated with a small improver in the quantity of a good consumed.The second property of U(,) is that of diminishing marginal good, which means that the (positive) marginal utility of individually good gets small and smaller the more of the good that is being consumed in the weigh 1 place. Ones commencement ceremony Dr. stream after a figure outout yields material body of a lot of satis situationion. By the fifth bust or sixth, the additional satis concomitantion, spot n iodineffervescent positive, is much smaller. An grave government issue in consumer opening is that a alternative family genial inter gradeship fag be represented by a utility function all if the relationship satisfies completeness and transitivity.The converse (that any complete and transitive preference relation whitethorn be represented by a utility function) is as well true provided that the lean of alternative ch oices is finite. Mas-Collel, Whinston, and Green (1995, p. 9) If the twist of assertable alternative choices is infinite, it may non be practicable to represent the preference relation with a utility function. Rational choice analysis generally begins with the premise that some means, or group of actors, is ar maximizing utility that is, choosing the preferred alternative. This is moreover part of the story, however.A nonher grave element of the choice shape is the comportment of shynesss. The aim of constraints enlightens choice required, and one celibacy of rational choice conjecture is that it acts the trade-offs between alternative choices very explicit. A typical constraint in a simple one- plosive speech sound consumer choice problem is the budget constraint, which says that the consumer go offnot pass more than her income. Multi-period poses allow for borrowing, b arg and in that case the constraint is that the consumer moldiness(prenominal) be able t o repay the loan in the hereafter.The use of utility functions means the idea of agents making the preferred choices from among available alternatives is translated into a mathematical exercise in agonistic optimization. That is, an agent is imitation to make the operable choice (feasible in a experience that it is not prohibited by constraints) that results in the highest possible entertain of his or her utility function. Constrained optimization methods ( base on either calculus or set supposition) argon well developed in mathematics. The rootage to the constrained optimization problem generally leads to a decision rule.The decision rule shows how utility-maximizing choices vary with flips in plenty such as changes in income or in the prices of goods. A thirdly element of rational choice analysis involves assumptions about the surroundings in which choices argon do. Simple economic representatives atomic round 18 often restricted to choices made in markets, with e mphasis on how much of distri neverthelessively good or service consumers exigency to purchase (or firms want to produce and sell) under any precondition set of circumstances. A poop element of rational choice analysis is a discussion of how the choices of different agents argon made tenacious with one other.A bunk with unchanging choices in which each agent is optimizing subject to constraints is called balance wheel. In the fresh tomato market, for example, the choices of buyers and sellers be concordant if the quantity of tomatoes consumers want to purchase at the prevailing price is make up to the quantity that firms want to produce and sell at that price. In this as in other simple market toughies, price plays a key post in the formation of residue. If consumers want to purchase more than firms are producing, the price testamenting be mastery upward, which give induce more business by firms and reduce desired purchases by consumers.If consumers want t o purchase less than firms are producing, the resulting glut go out force prices down, which pass on reduce yield by firms and make up purchases by consumers. Fifth and last, in the absence seizure of strong reasons to do otherwise such as the annoyance of price controls by the government, the analyst employing rational choice possibleness allow for generally assume that equilibrium numbers in the object lesson are comme il faut representations of what demonstrablely happens in the veridical world.This means, in the above example, that a rational choice theoriser would theorise changes in the actual price of tomatoes observed in the real world by looking for possible causes of changes in the equilibrium price of tomatoes in her illustration. Extensions The staple fibre rational choice possible action expound above has been excourseed in a number of ways. I go out consider four important ones in this section, though in that location are of sort many others. First , the basic guess accounts solitary(prenominal) for choice at a disposed quantify that is, the nonplus is static.In contrast, a layabout-do (or intertemporal) sit around allows the agent to pattern for the futurity as well as make choices in the present. In a high-energy model, the agent is still faux to ontogenesis utility, and the concept of utility is infer to acknowledge not wholly present satisfaction but overly future satisfaction. The agent does not just make choices today he makes a propose for original and future choices. In this case, it may well be rational to leave (e. g. , consume less or work more) today in order to stimulate some better egress tomorrow. The high-voltage formulation is an essential element of theories of prudence and clothement.One issue that arises in propelling models is that of discounting. In closely dynamic models, the agents under friendliness are assumed to prefer (other things equal) a given aim of outlay in th e present to a given level of expenditure in the future. Consider a model with two periods, 1 and 2. let U1 de posting the agents utility in period 1 and U2 denote utility in period 2. (U1 and U2 feces depend on a number of factors, some of which can be controlled by the agent. ) The agent would then be assumed to formulate a plan for periods 1 and 2 to maximize the sum V = U1 + ? U2, where 0 ? 1 is the discount factor. 6 A specification of ? 1 means that a given utility is worth less to the agent in the future than in the present, and is denoted a positive rate of clock preference or s inculpate snip preference. A justification for magazine preference is given by Olson and Bailey (1981). Elster (1984, pp. 66ff) summarizes the opposing view that for an individual the very fact of having time preferences, over and above what is justified by the fact that we are mortal, is irrational and peradventure immoral as well. In any case, dynamic models with positive time preference are pervasive in the rational choice literature.The basic rational choice model assumes all sequels are cognize with certainty. A second extension of the basic model involves explicit treatment of incertainty. This is important in rational choice models of offense, for example, where a rational agent is assumed to consider the chance he or she volition be appreciated firearm committing a criminal act. The rational choice model is extended to allow for dubiety by assuming the agent maximizes pass judgment utility. irresolution is characterized by a fortune dissemination that assigns a carelihood (prob expertness) to each possible outcome. sound out there are two possible outcomes (for example, the prospective criminal is apprehended while committing a crime, or not apprehended while committing the crime), which we can denote outcome A and outcome B. Let pA denote the probability that outcome A bequeath go past pB denote the probability of outcome B. With these as the b ut possible outcomes, it is clear that pA + pB = 1 that is, there is a vitamin C% chance that either A or B will occur. Let U(A) be the agents utility with outcome A and U(B) be the agents utility with outcome B.The agent is then assumed to maximize evaluate utility, which is the sum of utility in each outcome weighted by the probability that outcome will occur V = pAU(A) + pBU(B). In general, the choices of the agent can affect pA and pB as well as U(A) and U(B). A think (and third) area in which the rational choice model is extended involves incomplete entropy. In the basic model described above, the agent knows perfectly all the qualities of the goods under her consideration. more generally, an agent may have to make choices when she does not have full information.A university generally does not have full information about the future research wareivity of a new assistant professor, for example, and a used car buyer cannot be certain that he is not tearaway(a) a lemon off the lot. The fourth area in which the basic rational choice model is extended involves strategical behavior. This generally occurs in situations in which there are only a some agents. The key issue is that each agent must take into account the liable(predicate) piece of his actions on the decisions of other agents, all of whom are looking at the situation the same way.A classic ongoing example of this kind of interaction involves the crude-oil production decisions of the transcription of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC). Acting collectively, OPEC members have an incentive to restrict production to keep the world price of crude-oil high. indeed each OPEC country is given a production quota a limit on the amount it can produce. Each country acting individually, however, has an incentive to cheat on its quota and thereby be able to sell more crude-oil at the high price. This will only be successful if the other countries obligate their quotas, however, thereby keeping the price high.Thus when a country is contemplating the breach of a quota, it must consider how other member countries may react. The branch of economics that deals with strategic interactions is called play possibility. 7 3. A truncated Description of the Rational Choice Method Like around scholarship, rational choice analysis usually begins with a question. What determines perform attending? be felo-de-se rates affected by the state of the economy? Do empennage belt laws make highways safer? Under what circumstances are unheated turkey methods necessary to end addictions?Why are drivers of certain minority groups more likely to be pulled over by law? Which soldiers are approximately likely to suffer casualties in a war? Why cant Yasser Arafat and Ariel Sharon just get along? Why did large mammals become dead in the Pelistocene era? When are workers most likely to shirk their job responsibilities? Does a describe decline in consumer confidence portend a slowdown in th e economy? Varian (1997, p. 4) describes the model-building process as follows all economic models are pretty much the same. There are some economic agents. They make choices in order to feeler their objectives.The choices have to satisfy various constraints so theres something that adjusts to make all these choices consistent. This basic structure suggests a plan of attack Who are the people making choices? What are the constraints they face? How do they interact? What adjusts if the choices arent mutually consistent? I will provide a reasonably more detailed description here. Rational choice analysis may be characterized as working through the spare-time activity feelings 1) Identify the relevant agents and make assumptions about their objectives. 2) Identify the constraints faced by each agent. ) Determine the decision rules of each agent, which characterize how an agents choices reply to changes of one kind or another for example, how the quantity of tomatoes purchased mi ght change with price or income. This task is usually everlasting(a) mathematically by the solution of a constrained optimization problem. 4) Determine how the decision rules of various agents may be made consistent with one another and thereby characterize the equilibrium of the model. 8 Effective analysis of complex interactions between agents normally involves the use of mathematical methods, which can sometimes be preferably a sophisticated. ) Explore how the equilibrium of the model changes in response to various outside events. That is, determine the predictions or implications of the model. Again, this step can involve substantial use of mathematics. 6) establish whether the predictions determined in step (5) are consistent with actual experience. This step often involves the statistical analysis of information and can involve sophisticated techniques (to control smack selection stroke, for example). 7) Draw conclusions and any implications (for government policy, for example) implied by (6).It is often the case that the question at hand may be intercommunicate by reference to standard theoretical results (e. g. , people generally want to consume less of a product when its price emergences). In these circumstances the analyst often will not propound and solve a rational choice model explicitly. Instead, she will assume the reader understands that the model could be specified and figure out if necessary and would have conventional implications. A. gustatory perception Specification In rational choice surmisal behavior follows from the pursuit of objectives, so preference specification is crucial.Frank (1997, p. 18) describes two general approaches. The expediency standard of rationality says rational people consider only be and benefits that accrue directly to themselves. The present-aim standard of rationality says rational people act efficiently in pursuit of whatever objectives they harbour at the moment of choice. Frank contends t hat neither approach is intelligiblely satisfactory. Many people would seem to care about more than their own material well-being, so the self-serving egoism implied by self-interest standard is probably too narrow.In contrast, the present-aim standard puts no restrictions at all on preference formation, which means that anything can be explained by an appeal to preferences. Again quoting Frank (1997, p. 18) Suppose, for example, that we see someone drink a gallon of used crankcase oil and keel over dead. The present-aim approach can explain this behavior by saying that the person must have really liked crankcase oil. The main strength of the self-interest standard is that the associated preference specifications are generally straightforward.This approach, which dominates basic economic theory, usually assumes that utility depends only on the drug addiction of material goods and services and that, for any given good or service, more is strictly preferred to less. Bergstrom (for thcoming) presents an analysis based on evolutionary considerations showing circumstances under which selfish behavior will become dominant. The present-aim standard has in addition been used in rational choice models, but its use is nowhere near as prevalent as use of the self-interest standard. The reasons are threefold.First, the self-interest standard has often been successful in the sensation of teachable predictions that are consistent with experience. Second, there is no compelling way to specify preferences when the only criterion is more than self-interest matters. (People may care about others, but are teh jealous or altruistic? ) Third, self-interest standard models are more tractable analytically and are more devoted than present-aim models to imply specific patent predictions. In particular, models in which agents care about each other in some way are prone to have quadruplex equilibria (sometimes an infinity of equilibria).Frank (1987) makes an evolutionary arg ument that preferences should include concerns for others. Bergstrom (1999) explores some possible solutions to the multiple equilibrium problem. B. Theory Revision It many instances step (6) will find that one or more of the predictions of a model are not borne out by the data. In these cases, the typical rational choice idealogue will not even consider abandoning the assumption of utility maximization. Instead, she will settle that she must have missed something about constraints or preferences and feat to revise her theory consortly.This issue of theory revision is very tricky, and space limitations (not to mention by limited intelligence) permit only a skeleton discussion here. Suppose a theory T has prediction P, when in fact available data indicate the gelid (not P, or P). The theory might then be revised in some way to become theory T, where T predicts P rather than P. My fancy is that most economists would much rather change assumptions about constraints rather than change assumptions about preferences. 9 This viewpoint reflects a desire to turn away meaningless t political machinelogies such as he consumed more tomatoes because his preferences changed in such a way that he wanted to consume more tomatoes. One can explain any choice in this way. Hausman (1984) summarizes the mentation of Lakatos (1970) as follows A adaptation of a theory is an improvement if it is not ad hoc. Modifications may be ad hoc in three ways. First of all, a modification of a theory may have no new testable implications at all. Lakatos regards such modifications as completely empty and unscientific.Modifications that are not ad hoc in this sense are theoretically forward. It may be, however, that the testable implications of the theoretically progressive modifications are not affirm by experiments or observations. In that case modifications are theoretically progressive but not observationally progressive. They are ad hoc in the second sense. An extended proces s of theory modification is progressive overall if the modifications are uniformly theoretically progressive and intermittently verifiablely progressive.As one is commuteing ones theory in the hope of improving it, modifications must always have new testable implications, and those testable implications must sometimes be borne out by experience. But one crucial feature of science has been leave out. Throughout this news report of repeated modifications, there must be some element of continuity. No theoretical progress in economics is made if I modify monetary by theory by adding to it the claim that copper conducts electricity. The expanded theory has testable (and confirmed) implications, but something arbitrary has evidently been tacked on.Such a modification is ad hoc in the third sense. One indispensabilitys to recognize the role of something like a Kuhnian paradigm. Modifications of theories must be made in the right way. (p. 23) I opine that most rational choice theori sts would adhere to these criteria for effective theory modification. As Stigler and Becker (1977) note What we assert is not that we are foxy enough to make illuminate applications of utility-maximizing theory to all important phenomena not even our entire generation of economists is clever enough to do that.Rather, we assert that this traditional approach of the economist offers guidance in tackling these problems and that no other approach of remotely comparable generality and power is available. (pp. 76-7) . We also claim that no significant behavior has been illuminated by assumptions of differences in tastes. Instead, they, along with assumptions of unstable tastes, have been a convenient crutch to lean on when the analysis has bogged down. They give the appearance of considered judgement (sic), yet really have only been ad hoc arguments that mask analytical failures. p. 89) In any case, one can change assumptions about preferences only if the new assumptions not only b ank the failure of the previous model (that is, they imply P rather than P) but also have new predictions that are not rejected by the data. C. Why is the Rational Choice Approach so general? 10 Defenders of the rational choice approach e. g. , Becker (1976) wall that the approach is multipurpose because it tends to generate non-tautological predictions. Suppose a scholar wants to account for some observed phenomenon P.For example, P might be the fact that wage rates remunerative to workers (after adjustment for inflation) tend to rise during good economic times expansions and fall during naughtily economic times recessions. It is generally sort of easy to develop a theory T that predicts P, especially for someone who has analyze P carefully. In fact, many such theories can be constructed. Importantly, however, it is generally not good scientific practice to use the same data to both(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) formulate and test a hypothesis or theory. If so, all theories would be confirmed.Instead, good methodological analysis will develop a theory T that not only predicts P, but that also has other predictions Q1, Q2, Q3, Ideally, many of these predictions will be observable that is, one should be able to determine if Q1, Q2, Q3 . do or do not in fact occur. If these predictions are not observed say not Q1 (Q1) is observed rather than Q1 the theory may be judged inadequate and either revised or discarded. If I may be allowed a lapse into inaccurate language, a theory can never be right if there is not at least some possibility in the too soon place for it to be wrong. 11 This is not to say that rational choice theorists are pristine with look on to this requirement. The history of economic thought is no suspect full of bad theories (bad in the sense that one or more key predictions are not consistent with the data) that have been saved by ad hoc modifications. It is to say that proponents of the rational choice approach contend t hat ad hoc theorizing and the resulting empty tautologies may be less prevalent with their approach than with other approaches.I certainly agree that the rational choice method does in fact tend to generate many testable predictions, and in particles 4 and 5 below I discuss several(prenominal)(prenominal) illustrative examples. despite the fact that advocates of rational choice theory justify their approach in this way, I know of no study that explicitly compares methodologies along these lines. Is it really the case that rational choice models have more non-tautological implications than the models implied by other approaches? I am not sure anyone has examined this issue carefully.I believe the rational choice methodology is gaining in popularity not just because it tends to generate lots of observable predictions, but also because it tends to generate fabrication predictions. This is an extension of the idea of smart stay. young confirmation embodies the sentiment expressed by Descartes (1644) that we know hypotheses are correct only when we see that we can explain in call of them, not merely the effect we originally had in mind, but also all other phenomena which we did not previously think. Quoted by Musgrave (1974), p. 1) Campbell and Vinci (1983, p. 15) begin their discussion of allegory confirmation as follows Philosophers of science generally agree that when observational equivalence supports a theory, the confirmation is much stronger when the separate is romance. The verification of an comical prediction, for example, tends to provide much stronger confirmation than the explanation of something already known of something the theory was designed to account for. This view is so familiar that Michael Gardner has recently described it as a lengthy tradition not to say a consensus in the philosophy of science. As seems to often be the case in the philosophy of science, the receipts of fabrication confirmation is not as well established a s the above quote implies. Campbell and Vinci (1983) also note that the depression of novel confirmation is beset with a theoretical puzzle about how the distributor point of confirmation can change without any change in the evidence, hypothesis, or appendage assumptions. (p. 315) Kahn, Landsburg, and Stockman (1992) maintain that the question of novel confirmation can be addressed meaningfully only in the presence of an explicit model by which hypotheses are generated. (p. 04) They find that the idea of novel confirmation is valid if there are unperceivable differences in the abilities of scientists or if there is some chance of error in observation. 12 Campbell and Vinci (1993) secernate between epistemic transition and heuristic rule program novelty. Epistemic novelty occurs when a theory has an implication that would be considered highly marvellous in the absence of the theory. There is of course a question over the proper definition of highly improbable. Heuristic n ovelty occurs when the evidence predicted by a theory plays no heuristic role in the formation of the theory.Descartes would seem to be referring to heuristic novelty in the above quote. Rational choice theory is a useful methodology in part ( possibly in large part) because it tends to lead the researcher to novel implications, thereby making novel confirmation more likely than may be the case with other methodologies. Space and time considerations do not allow me to attempt a full-blown analysis of this conjecture, which in any case I am not really qualified to abridge because of my limited exposure to alternative mixer science methodologies not based on rational choice and my limited knowledge of the philosophy of science.In Sections 4 and 5 below I describe several examples of rational choice theory and some associated novel implications. I should note that the mathematical record of rational choice theory would appear (to me) to be crucial here. Mathematics allows the theori st to make some sense out of complicated interactions between decision-making units that would otherwise be difficult or impossible to untangle. It is just those kinds of situations in which rational choice theories are most likely to have novel implications, because the implications are not immediately bare even to scholars with knowledge, experience, and intuition.We now proceed to Section 4, which provides a detailed discussion of a rational choice model of perform building attendance. Section 5 gives shorter summaries of several other rational choice models, including models of self-destruction, auto sanctuary regulation, addiction, racial profiling, Congressional influence on military namings, political rotations, megafauna extinction, and the predictability of aspiration spending. 4. A Detailed Example Church AttendanceAzzi and Ehrenberg (1975) develop a rational choice model of perform attendance. This is a classic paper, which Iannaccone (1998, p. 1480) calls the e arly formal model for ghostly employment (within any discipline) and the foundation for nearly all subsequent economic models of phantasmal behavior. Italics in original. Their analysis begins with the assumption that the utility of a household consisting of two members, a maintain and a married woman, is given by (1)U = U(C1, s1, C2, s2, , Ct, st, Cn, sn, q), where Ci is the households utilisation of market goods and services in period i (i = 1, n), and si denotes ghostly partnership in period i. The model assumes for simplicity that both members of the household know how long they will live and that both will die at date n. This is a dynamic model, because the household cares about future as well as authorized consumption. The remaining variable in the household utility function, q, is the expect value of the households after sustenance consumption. Azzi and Ehrenberg assume that perform attendance follows from a salvation pauperism (the desire to change magni tude afterlife consumption) and a social pressure motive (where church building service building service social station and employment appends the chances that an individual will be successful in business), rather than necessarily a pure consumption motive (people simply enjoy the time they spend at church). habit in period i (any year during which the save and wife are alive) is given by (2)Ci = C(xt, h1t, h2t), here xt is denotes the consumption of goods and services purchases in markets, while h1t and h2t are the amounts of time devoted by the husband and wife, respectively, to market-based consumption. The idea here is that satisfaction involves not only the purchase of a good (such as a television) but also time played out using the good. The social value of church attendance in period i, denoted by si, is determined as follows (3)si = s(r1i, r2i) where r1i and r2i denote the time worn out(p) on church-related activities by the husband and wife, respectively, in year i. People get more current satisfaction from going to church the more time they devote to church-related activities. After-life consumption q is determined as follows (3)q = q(r11, r12, r21, r22, , r1n, r2n), That is, the more time spent on church-related activities during all periods of life means the more the household members will enjoy their afterlife. Azzi and Ehrenberg (p. 33, fn. 7) note that Our households view of the afterlife is not one of an all-or-nothing proposition (heaven or hell), it is rather that there is a continuum of possible outcomes. The choices of the household are constrained by time and money. The two household members can divvy up time in labor which generates income that can be used to purchase the goods and services denoted by xt in equation (1) above, consumption-related activities reflected in h1t and h2t in equation (2) above, and church-related activities reflected in the r1i and r2i in equation (3) above. The constraint here is that each day has 24 h ours. Hence the geminate can spend more time on church-related activities only if they spend less time earning income and/or consuming.The second constraint in the model says basically that, over the course of their lives, the checkmate cannot spend more than their combined income. Over the course of their lives means that it is possible for them to borrow early in life as long as they repay the loan (with interest) later in life. It is also possible to lend early in life, which means that consumption can exceed income later. The amount of labor income the couple earns depends on the amount of time spent working by the husband and wife and the wage rate each is paid.The model also allows for non-labor income in each period, which might reflect investment returns. The distinction between labor and non-labor income turns out to be rather raise and important with respect to church attendance. Azzi and Ehrenbergs analysis is complicated in some respects and simple in others. It is co mplicated because it considers consumption over several periods rather than just one, and it allows for consumption to depend on time (the h1t and h2t) as well as purchases of goods and services in the market (xt).The model is simple in that it does not consider the supply side. That is, the model simply assumes that the household can buy any amount that it likes of consumption goods (xt) and that there are no effective limits on religious participation (st). The power of the rational choice approach is that rational choice models tend to have lots of observable implications, some of which are novel. The Azzi and Ehrenberg model implies that (i) The frequency of church attendance increases with age (ii) Females attend church more frequently than males (iii) Nonwhites attend church more frequently than whites (iv) People who believe in an afterlife attend church more frequently (v) Having a teammate of the same major devotion increases participation (vi) As health deteriorat es church attendance declines (vii) An increase in the number of pre-school age children present in the household reduces church attendance (viii) An increase in the number of school-age children present in the household increases church attendance (ix) Females hours devoted to religious activities will rise more rapidly with age than will the hours devoted by males to religious activities (x) For males who show sharp lettuce increases in their 20s, religious participation may first decline with age and then increase (xi) An increase in nonlabor income will increase religious participation and (xii) The effect of a proportionate shift in pay (say, a 10% increase in the present and all future periods) on church attendance is ambiguous. Many of these implications are not strike, but (ix) would appear to be somewhat novel.Item (ii) means that 40 year old women will attend church more frequently than 40 year old men. Item (ix) means that the change (increase) in church participa tion associated with aging from 40 to 50 will be greater among women than among men. Item (ii) follows directly from the fact that females tend to have lower wages. Thus if one could find couples in which the wife earns more than the man, the model predicts for those couples that the wife will probably not be devoted to attend church more frequently. Also, allowing for an uncertain time of death may revolutionize (i) nce an individual is faced with a tellingly high probability of death in a period it may become optimal for him to concentrate his religious participation as early as possible, since he may not survive to invest in future periods. (p. 38) 5. Several Brief Examples This section presents a brief overview of several applications of rational choice theory. Unlike the church attendance example above, in which the form of the utility function was written out explicitly, the discussions in this section for the most part present only brief descriptions of the relevant opt imization problems and some of the resulting implications. A.Suicide Hamermesh and Soss (1974) develop a rational choice theory of suicide. They assume that the utility of an individual in any given period depends positively on consumption and negatively on a technological relation describing the cost each period of maintaining oneself at some borderline level of subsistence. (p. 85) Consumption is a function of age and of changeless income, which is a criterion of current and expected future income. Individuals are assumed to vary exogenously (according to a probability distribution) in their distastes for suicide that is, some individuals are more averse to suicide than others.This mannequin implies that an individual kills himself when the total discounted lifetime utility remaining to him reaches zero. (p. 85). Thus in this model we have a rational individual who is forward looking, considering not only his present utility but what his future utility is likely to be. If total utility over the rest of his life is high with suicide and life ending in the present than it is with the continuation of life, suicide is the rational option. present are some of the major implications of the model. (i) The suicide rate should rise with age. (ii) The suicide rate should fall with increases in ineradicable income13 and decreases in the unemployment rate. (iii) The marginal absolute effect of permanent income on suicide declines as permanent income increases. The first two effects are by no means surprising, but the third effect is certainly by no means plain ex ante (at least to me). (ii) means that suicide rates will fall as income rises. (iii) means that the effect of increases in income gets smaller the larger income is to begin with.A $10,000 raise is much more likely to prevent suicide if the person is earning $50,000 to begin with than if the person is earning $150,000. This is quite plausible, but the point is that it is not something most analys ts would think about ex ante. B. elevator car Safety Regulation. Peltzman (1975) considers the likely effects of legitimately mandated generalisation of various prophylactic device devices14 on automobiles. 15 The devices in question for the most part were designed to reduce the costs caused by accidents rather than to reduce the likelihood that accidents occur. Peltzman notes that the auto safety literature estimates the impact of afety mandates by assuming that (i) the mandates have no effect on the probability that an accident will occur, and (ii) the mandates have no effect on the voluntary demand for safety devices. In effect, the regulations were implemented based on analysis that assumed the same number and nature of accidents would occur, but that automobiles would be better render to protect drivers and passengers from injury and death. He notes that technological studies imply that annual highway deaths would be 20 percent greater without legally mandated installatio n of various safety devices on automobiles. (p. 677) Peltzman considers the behavior of a typical driver and postulates quite reasonably that he or she is made worse off by occupation accidents or, equivalently, that he or she benefits from safety. Peltzman also assumes, however, that the driver benefits from what he calls crusade impregnation, by which he means more speed, thrills, and so forth (p. 681). another(prenominal) things equal, the driver can obtain more driving intensity only by driving less safely. Thus the driver faces a trade-off between two goods, intensity and safety, in which more of one can be obtained only by giving up some of the other.This kind of trade-off is in standard complete for rational choice theorists. In basic consumer choice theory the consumer with a given income can obtain more of one good only if he or she consumes less of some other good (or goods). The standard consumer choice problem also considers what happens when the consumers income rises. Rational choice theory predicts that, in the absence of very unusual circumstances, the consumer will buy more of most goods when income rises. Put another way, it is typically not the case that a consumer will allocate one hundred percent of an increase in income to increased consumption of a single good.Income increases tend to be opening around over several goods. Peltzman argues that the imposition of mandated safety devices in automobiles is rather like an increase in income in the sense that the devices make it possible for drivers to obtain both more safety and more intensity. proficient studies in effect assume that drivers will respond by consuming only more safety, but rational choice theory indicates that drivers can also respond by consuming more intensity (that is, by driving less safely). The extent to which drivers choose between more safety and more intensity is ultimately an empirical question.Suppose drivers choose to increase consumption of both safety an d intensity which is what economists have come to expect in these kinds of situations. In this case, the rational choice model implies that the number of total driving accidents16 should rise because of increased driving intensity, while the average amount of aggrieve per accident as reflected, say in the number of fatalities among passengers should decrease because of the safety improvements. This means that it is actually possible for total handicraft fatalities to rise as a result of the safety mandatesThis would happen if the increase in the number of accidents is sufficiently large congener to the decrease in average damage per accident. Once again we have an example of a rational choice model yielding implications that are not obvious ex ante. The novel predictions here are that the imposition of auto safety mandates (i) should increase the occurrence of traffic accidents, and (ii) should decrease the carnal knowledge frequency of accidents involving passenger fatalitie s, and (iii) may increase or decrease the total number of traffic fatalities.After extensive empirical exam based on several data sets, Peltzman concludes that regulation appears not to have cut back highway deaths. (p. 714). There is indeed some evidence that the number of deaths increased, but in most cases that evidence is not strong. In any case, there is no evidence that the regulations decreased traffic fatalities. Peltzman also finds that the safety mandates were followed by an increase in the number of accidents involving pedestrians and by an increase in the number of accidents involving only property damage with no injury to vehicle occupants.A related paper by McCormick and Tollison (1984) considers the effect on get down rates of an increase in the number of police officers. Rational choice theory indicates that the quality of law enforcement should not be judged by assure rates alone. If the number of police officers increases and as a result the probability of arr est for any given crime increases, rational prospective criminals will see the expected cost of crime rise and accordingly undertake fewer criminal acts.Total arrests reflect both the number of criminal acts (which should fall) and the percentage of criminal acts for which an arrest is made (which should rise). Total arrests rise only if the latter effect is stronger than the former. McCormick and Tollison test their theory using data from the Atlantic shore Conference in mens college basketball. In 1978, the conference increased the number of officials from two to three. In this context, one may think of officials as police officers and fouls called as arrests.McCormick and Tollison find that this 50 percent increase in the number of officials caused a 34 percent reduction in the number of fouls called (p. 229). When my son Aaron (now almost 5 historic period old) was an infant, he attended the Baylor Child increment Center during the day. In the room where the instructor chan ged diapers, there was a pad on the counter but no simple mindedness of any kind (such as a belt or guard rail). When I asked the director about this, she said that there was no restraint because she (the director) did not want to give the teacher a untrue sense of security.With a belt or rail, the teacher might be tempted to crack away for just a flash to check on something in the room. Whether restraints increase or decrease changing table accidents is an empirical question, though Pelzmans analysis suggests the director made the right decision. C. dependance Stigler and Becker (1977) propose a rational choice theory of addiction, a theory later on expatiate by Becker and Murphy (1988). In this theory, a person is potentially accustomed to some good c if an increase in his current consumption of c increases his future consumption of c. (Becker and Murphy, 1988, p. 81) The key feature of these models is that a consumers utility in any given period depends not just on consum ption in that period, but also on consumption crownwork. Consumption with child(p) is essentially the consumers ability to enjoy a particular good, which depends on past consumption of the good and perhaps on other factors. If past consumption enhances current enjoyment ability, the addition is said to be unspoilt. This might be the case, for example, with audience to virtuous music. The more one listens to classical music, the greater ones cognitive content to appreciate it.Stigler and Becker note that beneficial consumption large(p) might also be positively influenced by education. Highly enlightened people might have a greater capacity to enjoy things like classical music, opera, and art. If past consumption reduces current enjoyment ability, the addition is said to be harmful. This is the case with substances such as diacetylmorphine and other substances normally considered to be addictive. The more heroin a person consumes in the present, the less will be his or her futu re enjoyment (high) from any given amount of heroin consumption in the future. 17 The formal setup in Stigler and Becker (1977, p. 78) is relatively simple. First consider beneficial addiction to, say, classical music. Consumer utility (U) depends positively on two goods, M (music appreciation) and Z (other goods) U = U(M, Z). Music appreciation depends positively on the time allocated to music audition and on music consumption capital (Sm) M = M(tm, Sm). Music consumption capital at date j, Smj, depends positively on the time allocated to music consumption in the past, Mj-1, Mj-2, . and positively (perhaps) on the persons level of education at time j (denoted Ej) Smj = S(Mj-1, Mj-2, , Ej). The addition is beneficial if Smj depends on positively on the past value of M. Alternatively, for harmful addition we may replace M with H, where H denotes the consumption of a good such as heroin. In this case, consumption capital S depends negatively on past values of H. The elaborated mod el of Becker and Murphy (1988) views addictive behavior as a situation in which the consumption of a particular good begins to increase rapidly. 18 Their model has a number of implications. Perhaps he most interesting is their finding that the demand for addictive goods should be quite sensitive to permanent changes in price (where the price of abominable goods includes the expected costs associated with apprehension by politics, as well as any asleep(p) earnings that may result from worthy addicted and, say, unable to work), but not necessarily to transient price changes. A second implication is that strong addictions, if they are to end, must end suddenly (cold turkey). Rational persons end stronger addictions more rapidly than weaker ones. (p. 692). Other implications are that addicts often go on binges (p. 75), present-oriented individuals are potentially more addicted to harmful goods than future-oriented individuals (p. 682), and temporary events can permanently hook rat ional persons to addictive goods (p. 691). Stigler and Becker (1977) and Becker and Murphy (1988) do not perform empirical tests of their models of rational addiction. Tests have been performed by other authors, however. Because good consumption data are not available for illegal substances, tests have focused on baccy and caffeine. Tests based on tobacco consumption are reported by Becker, Grossman, and Murphy (1994), and Keeler, et. l. (1993). A test based on caffeine consumption is reported by Olekalns and Bardsley (1996). These tests are generally certificatory of the rational addiction theory. Becker and Murphy (1988) note that with a simple extension their model can explain cycles of overeating and fast. Their basic analysis assumes there is only one kind of consumption capital. Suppose that with respect to food there are rather two types of consumption capital, one of which is simply the persons weight (which might be called health capital) and the other of which is eatin g capital. That is, eating can be both harmful and beneficial in the senses defined above. As eating increases, health capital falls (weight gain has bad effects on health) and eating capital rises (the capacity to enjoy food is greater the more one eats). Under tolerate conditions, utility maximization results in cycles of dieting and binging. 19 Rational addiction theory has been applied to the analysis of religious behavior see Iannaccone (1984, 1990) and Durkin and Greeley (1991). Iannaccone (1998) summarizes this approach. Utility depends on religious commodities produced, the value of which depends on religious human capital. The stocktaking of religious human capital depends on time and money devoted to religious activities in the past. These models have the sideline predictions, nearly all of which receive strong empirical support (Iannaccone, 1998, p. 1481) Individuals tend to move toward the denominations and beliefs of their parents as they mature and start to make their own decisions about religion People are more likely to switch denominations early in life People tend to marry within religions if they do not, one spouse is likely to adopt the religion of the other.D. Racial Profiling Law enforcement authorities in many jurisdictions have been criticized in recent years for racial bias in their choice of cars to search for illegal drugs and other contraband. 20 The fact that police are more inclined to stop and search cars driven by members of certain minority groups is well established. Knowles, Persico, and Todd (2001) develop a rational choice model that suggests an empirical test for distinguishing whether this disparity is due to racial blemish or to the polices objective to maximize arrests. In their model, the typical police officer maximizes the total number of convictions negatively charged a cost of searching cars. (p. 209) Motorists consider the probability of being searched in deciding whether to carry contraband. (p. 209) At least some motorists perceive a benefit to carrying contraband. If they do carry, their expected benefit is positive if they are not searched and negative (that is, there is a positive expected cost) if they are searched. The model implies that if police officers are not racially biased, the frequency of guilt among motorists conditional on being searched will be main(a) of race. 21 In their empirical analysis based on 1,590 searches on a laden of Interstate 95 in doctor between January 1995 and January 1999, Knowles, Persico, and Todd find support for this proposition. They interpret this result as the absence of racial prejudice against African Americans (p. 212). The fact remains, however, that African Americans are searched more frequently than whites. If this does not arise from racial bias by police officers, then why does it occur?One possibility noted by the authors is that race may proxy for other variables that are unobservable by the policy officer and are correlate d with both race and crime. Possible examples of such unobservables are the schooling level or the earnings potential of the motorist. (p. 212) While one may quibble with some elements of this study, for our present purposes the main point is that the rational choice theory, at least potentially, yielded implications that allowed the analyst to gain some insight (if not a last resolution) into the issue of racial profiling. E. Congressional bring on Military AssignmentsPrior to the 1960s, economic theory tended to view politicians and other government officials (bureaucrats) as disinterested observers and regulators of economic activity. A group of economics led by Nobel laureate James Buchanan then developed a branch of economics known as public choice theory, which views government officials as self-interested maximizers. Goff and Tollison (1987) take a public choice approach to gain some understanding of casualties in the Vietnam War. The typical soldier is assumed to prefer n ot to be position in risky combat situations, and this preference is shared by the soldiers family.A solider (or more likely his family) might therefore try to gain a low-risk assignment by asking for intervention in military decisions by his Senator or Representative. Senators and Representatives are assumed to desire re-election, which implies a desire to please their constituencies. The ability of a Senator or Representative to have this kind of influence, however, varies according to committee assignments, ties to the military/industrial complex, etc. Goff and Tollison assume that political influence depends on length of service, with more seniority implying more influence.Taken together, all these assumptions have the straightforward implication that soldiers from states with more senior (and hence more influential) Senators and Representatives should, other things equal, have experienced fewer casualties in Vietnam than soldiers from states with less senior (and therefore le ss influential) Senators and Representatives. Their empirical analysis (using data from January 1961 to folk 1972) supports the hypothesis In the House, the Mississippi military mission had an average seniority of 27. 7, while hullo had an average seniority of 61. . A seniority be of 1 indicates the member had the highest seniority in his or her party. In terms of lives, this represents about 6 fewer war deaths for every 100,000 of population in Mississippi relative to Hawaii. Ceteris paribus, this difference in House seniority leads to a 55 percent high casualty rate for Hawaii than Mississippi. In the Senate, Arkansas had an average seniority of 6. 2, and mendelevium had an average seniority of 45. 4. Other things equal , this difference leads to an 86 percent higher casualty rate for atomic number 101 than for Arkansas.In terms of lives, this translates into about 7 more war deaths for every 100,000 of population in Maryland than in Arkansas. (pp. 319-20) In this case, th e value of the rational choice approach is not so much in the fact that it yields surprising answers to a well-established question, but that it suggests a unparalleled question to ask in the first place. It is by no means obvious that someone not thinking about self-interested Senators and Representatives would even think to ask the question addressed by Goff and Tollison. F. Ideology and IntransigenceRoemer (1985) applies hazard theory to the analysis of political revolutions. Specifically, he presents a two-player game between Lenin and the tzar. Lenins objective is to maximize the probability of revolution, while the Tsars objective is to decrease that probability. As in any game-theoretic setting, when making decisions each player keeps in mind how the other player might react. Lenin tries to relieve oneself revolution by lining up alliances, where people are induced to join a coalition with the promise of income redistribution.The Tsar tries to prevent revolution by dec lare to punish anyone who participates in revolutionary activities (assuming the revolution attempt is unsuccessful). Increased penalties reduce the number of individuals who are likely to join the coalition but increase the revolutionary flack of those who do. An individual will join a coalition attempting to overthrow the Tsar if the expected benefit to him or her of doing so exceeds the expected cost. There is of course some uncertainty about the outcome. Roemers results include the following it is shown that various tyrannical aspects of the Tsars strategy, and progressive aspects of Lenins strategy need not flow from ideological precommitments, but are simply good optimizi